Anatomy Notes PDF

Medical terminologies are confusing (af!! My first interaction with them had me questioning my existence.!!) but visualization helps a lot. Here are a few ways how I keep track of these terms. Okay. A couple of things. Start by making an...

Medical terminologies are confusing (af!! My first interaction with them had me questioning my existence.!!) but visualization helps a lot. Here are a few ways how I keep track of these terms. Okay. A couple of things. Start by making an axis around which your body will move. Run it down through the middle. You know that your limbs are also known as ‘appendages’. ‘Appendicular Skeleton’ comprises of your limbs along with the bones that provide your limbs with an attachment point to the rest of your body. For ex: Legs are your appendages. Pelvic Girdle is your attachment point. Remember this equation now: Axial = Everything – Appendicular This will help you keep track of all the bones. (Just know that as of now you probably have to remember the names of bones. I’ll see what I can do when we reach the skeletal system.) I don’t even have to explain this. You know how diagrams are drawn while discussing these topics. The way a person is portrayed in these diagrams (standing straight awkwardly -.- Hands on the sides, palms facing up, : / ), these ‘poses’ are called ‘Anatomical Positions’. Next up. Planes. Let’s get the obvious out of the way first. Sagittal: The Latin for this word means ‘an arrow passing through your body’. Even though there are ‘n’ number of ways to ‘pass an arrow through the body’ but the most obvious would be... Sagittal plane is like that too. Just a plane running through the midline of your body. There are two types for that. Pretty straightforward. (something like this) MIDsagittal, as the word suggests, is a plane running through the MIDdle of the body which makes equal divisions (like we cut an apple (unless you are some psychopath cutting apples diagonally...)). Parasagittal is a plane running to the side of the midline making unequal divisions. Frontal/Coronal: You definitely should know both the terms but imo, ‘coronal’ is the better term to ‘understand’ and to never confuse this plane with something else. The Latin for this word means ‘a crown’. Now, imagine those dramatic coronation moments in any film. (Something like this) You see how slowly this crown will be placed on the head. You can also imagine the motion of these hands coming down with the crown, if that helps. Coronal plane is like that too. A plane running down the body but instead of a crown between the two hands on the side of the head, there’d be a big glass plane, much like the big figure above. Oblique is simple and kinda self-explanatory. Any plane dividing the body by running a plane in a slant (a ‘slant’ as in at any angle other than 90o). The only plane left now is the Transverse plane. The Latin for the word means ‘to cut across’. ‘Across’ here is used to suggest ‘horizontally’ (as in ‘to cut horizontally’). So, the transverse plane is any plane that divides your body through a plane parallel to the ground. Even if you forget what transverse plane means, at least you know every other plane ALONG WITH a decent explanation (or a dumb reasoning) behind them. You can narrow things down if needed. Just keep practicing. Next up. Some more terms here and there. SUPERIOR/INFERIOR (CRANIAL (referring to ‘cranium’ (head))/CAUDAL (referring to ‘cauda’ (tail)) Goes the same like positions at your workplace. The CEO is the ‘head’ and the rest of the staff is judged with respect to the CEO. While using SUPERIOR, you go towards the head (The heart is superior to the liver). Similarly, you go towards the while using INFERIOR. (The stomach is inferior to the lungs.) ANTERIOR/POSTERIOR Think of them like: Anterior (Ahead of me): The sternum (breastbone) is anterior to the heart. Posterior (in my Past (behind me)): The esophagus is posterior to the trachea. PROXIMAL/DISTAL The figure below might explain everything. The usage of these words would go like: The humerus (arm bone) is proximal to the radius. (SEE.?! Humerus is closer to the trunk WHEN COMPARED TO radius.) The phalanges (finger bones) are distal to the carpals (wrist bones). (Same here.!! Our fingers are farther than our wrist.) LATERAL/MEDIAL You can tell that medial refers to something that is closer to the midline. (The ulna is medial to the radius.) Lateral, on the other hand means farther away from the midline. (The lungs are lateral to the heart.) [9 times out of 10. ‘LATERAL’ would mean ‘to the side of’/ ‘away from the midline’] NOTE that it is NOT same as PROXIMAL/DISTAL which focusses more on the organization of the structure or attachment of the limb to the trunk. Both of these pair LATERAL/MEDIAL and PROXIMAL/DISTAL give off the same vibe but are used in a different sense. FLEXION/EXTENSION Okay. EXTENSION is again a self-explanatory term referring to any motion that increases joint angle. Contradictory to FLEXION which reduces the joint angle. Also, if (under some influence) you get confused, try to recall how people ‘flex’ in front of a gym mirror. LATERAL FLEXION is another small concept meaning moving away from the midline of the body. You are still increasing the angle but just on the side and with respect to the midline. Example: Flexion at the ankle: Dorsi and Plantar flexion. Now this is a bit complicated. It doesn’t have to be though. To answer correctly the direction of radial/ulnar deviation, you need to know the position of radius and ulna. The figure below will explain everything. In a nutshell, if you trace an outline of ‘U’ through the side of your pinky, that’d give you the location of ulna. Similarly, if you can trace an outline of cursive ‘R’ through the side of your thumb, that’d give you the location of radius. Rest, just figure out which side the deviation is w.r.t. the midline, relate it to the bone and then, you can name the deviation. ADDUCTION/ABDUCTION The lecture slides explain this pretty well. ADDUCTION is moving closer to the midline of the body. You can think of ADDuction as ADDing to the body. ABDUCTION on the other hand is moving away from the midline of the body. You can think of abduction like the criminal offence of taking ‘away’ someone using persuasion. You can refer to those diagrams for assistance. ROTATION Exactly what you think. Turning about the body’s axis. Rotation (broadly) can be internal (turning in) or external (turning out). SUPINATION/PRONATION Okay. Hear me out on this one. The Latin word for supination means ‘to turn up’. After eliminating ‘NATION’ from both the words we are left with: ‘SUPI’ & ‘PRO’ See the second letter in ‘SUPI’. ‘U’ It opens UP, doesn’t it.? Like an upward parabola. That’d do the trick. Whenever you see anything related to SUPINATION/PRONATION. Just eliminate commonalities (NATION). Focus on ‘SUPI’. Know it well. Remember the fact that the second letter in ‘SUPI’ opens UP, hence, SUPINATION must mean to turn (open) upwards. The opposite for it would fit ‘Pronation’ meaning to turn (downwards). INVERSION/EVERSION This one is easy. INversion: Turning your sole INwards. The opposite would fit EVERSION. (Turning your sole outwards) That’s the best part about these terminologies. They come in pairs. Once, you figure one of them out, the other one becomes obvious. Nature loves symmetry.!! The only way you can get better at them is by using them more and more. Treat them like slangs. You just gotta get comfortable with them and you should be fine. :) I believe I have covered everything but it’s best to print this PDF and annotate it if you find something is missing. If you notice a mistake in this PDF, firstly, I apologize and secondly, make sure you flag it in the group chat so that others can correct their copies too. Good Luck.!! *ahem *ahem damn Okay. A group of cells, similar in structure, when join together to perform a common or related function, they are known as TISSUES. Nothing too complex here. Follow the arrows and don’t get lost. You’ll get used to this. To remember the functions of Epithelial Tissues, I have made something for you. Keep in mind the word PASS (It’s more like an abbreviation) (Think of your PASS Study Sessions) PASS would stand for: P: Protection A: Absorption S: Secretion S: Sensory reception (or sensation) While talking about the arrangements, ‘simple’ means ‘single layered’, ‘stratified’ means ‘multi-layered’ and pseudostratified (so, ‘pseudo’ means fake/false) means ‘a single layered structure that kinda looks like a multi-layered structure. Just by combining arrangements and cell shape, you can end up with multiple combinations like: Simple cuboidal/Simple columnar/ Stratified cuboidal/Stratified columnar. Keep this mnemonic in mind to recall the functions of connective tissue proper. Fox-BeWaRe (If you are wondering, ‘Fox-Beware!’ is the name of this story book (picture attached)) The letters in BOLD mean the following: F: Fat Storage B: Binding W: Water & salt reservoir R: Resists stress You know the functions of cartilage, bones and blood. They are pretty simple. You’ll be fine. The only place where you might have some trouble is while remembering various structural components of the connective tissues. Use this mnemonic for that. Again, keep your eyes on the bolded letters. Mr. WHITE’s FARM CAP BOLDED letters stand for: M: Macrophages WHITE: White Blood Cells (Eosinophils and Neutrophils) F: Fibroblasts A: Adipocytes R: Reticular Fibers M: Mast Cells C: Collagen A: And P: Plasma Cells Same with these two. Nothing new here. I believe I have covered everything but it’s best to print this PDF and annotate it if you find something is missing. If you notice a mistake in this PDF, firstly, I apologize and secondly, make sure you flag it in the group chat so that others can correct their copies too. Good Luck.!! It’s been a while. The thing with Skeletal System is: There are a LOT of names. They are complicated af to remember. (Not if you practice. Cliché. I know.) I can tell you if the alphabet ‘C’ comes before or after ‘K’ but you must know HOW ‘C’ and ‘K’ actually look like, so that you can identify them in the exams. Similarly, I can help you memorize different positions but to get those questions right, you need to KNOW the names of these bones. So, here’s what we are gonna do. In the first few pages, I’ll give you ALL the names that you have to know. Think of the people you meet. Your friends. You remember their names too, right.? Once you are DONE with the names. We’ll get to the good stuff...the positions and the concepts. Note that I’m gonna rely on etymology like I did while discussing the medical terminologies. I find it better that way. You can ignore these Latin/Greek terms if they confuse you. I’ve noticed that these root words often give away a lot about a specimen. 3A – Bones & Tissues CARTILAGES Hyaline – hyalinos – glass like Elastic Fibrocartilage – fibro + cartilage Articular – articulus – small connecting part – often used to refer to joints Costal – costa – ribs BONES Trabeculae – little beams (beam here refers to those BIG construction beams like I-beams etc. Here, they mean something like a strut or rod that supports or anchors a framework of parts within a body or organ.) Diaphysis – growing shaft Epiphysis – growing own (usually at the extremities.) (Match ‘Epiphysis’ with ‘Extremities’) Metaphysis – meta - growing between (diaphysis and epiphysis) Endosteum – Endo (inside/within) + osteum (bone) Periosteum – Peri (around) + osteum (bone) Osteon – Haversian System (Named after Clopton Havers) Lamellae – Thin plate Volkmann’s Canal – Named after Alfred Volkmann Canaliculi – Small channels Osteoprogenitor cells – Osteo (bone) + progenesis (production) = bone producing cells Osteoblasts – Osteo (bone) + blasts (buds/sprouts) = bone forming cells Osteocytes – Osteo (bone) + cytos (cells) = mature bone cells Osteoclasts – Osteo (bone) + clasts (break) = bone destruction cells AXIAL SKELETON Frontal – In the front Parietal – pariet - The walls of a cavity Temporal – tempus – time (here, refers to the fact that grey hairs usually appear on this side of the skull) (That’s my personal favorite.!!) Nasal – c’mon it makes sense Sphenoid – sphenoeidos – wedge-shaped Zygomatic – zygon – yoke (That’s a yoke. It’s used to hitch animals to a wagon) Zygomatic arch = zygomatic bone (anteriorly) + temporal bone (posteriorly) Maxilla Mandible – mandibula – for chewing (It’s easier to get confused between maxilla and mandible. Just know that mandibula (in Latin) means chewing and the only movable thing in your skull is your lower jaw. So... mandibula – mandible – lower jaw. Whatever’s left is maxilla, the upper jaw.) (Pro tip: If you notice pairs, try narrowing things down and just keep one of them in mind.) Vomer – Ploughshare See, that’s why I focus on etymology so much. Ethmoid – ethmos – seive (it’s lightweight and spongy) Lacrimal – lacrima – tears (when you cry) Occipital – Ob (back) + caput (head) = back of the head Mastoid – Breast/Nipple shaped (you’ll know what I mean when you’ll see this in the lab) JOINTS IN THE SKULL Coronal sutures – coronal (crown) + suture (sew) (refers to the fact that the skull looks knitted) Squamous suture – scale like Lambdoid suture – resembling to the Greek letter lambda (λ) Sagittal suture – arrow like Nuchal lines – ridges on the skulls External occipital protuberance - prōtubērantia - bulge = a bulge outside the occipital bone Foramen Magnum – Forare (a hole) + magnum (great) = a big hole CORONAL & SAGITTAL SUTURES DON’T CLOSE UNTIL YOU’RE ABOUT 1.5 yrs. THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN 33 TOTAL VERTEBRAE 23 INTERVERTEBRAL DISCS 7 Cervical – C1, C2, C3,...,C7 – Cervix – cervicallis - neck 12 Thoracic – T1, T2, T3,...,T 1 0, T 1 1, T 1 2 – thorac - chest 5 Lumbar – L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 – loin – the portion below the ribs and above the pelvis 5 Sacral (fused) – (S1+S2+S3+S4+S5) – sacred/holy (ancient egyptians considered this bone sacred to a god of resurrection and agriculture) 4 Coccygeal (fused) – (Co1+Co2+Co3+Co4) – beak of the cuckoo bird (because that’s how it looks when looked from the lateral side) CERVICAL VERTEBRAE Process – processus – projection/outgrowth Vertebral Body – Anterior Vertebral Arch - Posterior (Remember. Vertebral Arch is NOT one thing. It contains all the posterior elements.) Vertebral Canal – spinal canal – that’s where the spinal cord passes through Spinous process – most posterior projection Transverse process – Transverse (horizontal) + process (projection/outgrowth) Lamina – b/w transverse and spinous processes Pedicle – b/w transverse and vertebral body (Dr. Drake mentioned that people often mix up Lamina and Pedicle. SAY LESS.!!) Know her.?! She’s Bellatrix Lestrange from Harry Potter. Her last name is what you need. Now Focus. (not on the picture. Focus on what I’m saying -.-) Le S TRANge : Lamina – b/w Spinous process and Transverse process This guy...is Dr. Peter Venkman from Ghostbusters. Look at his name. Pe T er V enkman: Pedicle – b/w Transverse and Vertebral Body (I wish I’d watched these movies while growing up. : / Anyways...) Superior Articular Process (facet) – remember I mentioned this above. Articular = connecting part Inferior Articular Process – Same here (There are two of each. The only difference is that superior lies above and inferior lies below. And when vertebrae lie on top of each other, the inferior articular facet of the top one articulates with the superior facet.) (you know this. Probably fluent by now. If not, refer to the Medical terminology PDF.) Functional Spinal Joint – Facet joint + The two vertebrae + Intervening intervertebral disc. Intervertebral foramen – Spinal nerves leave the spinal cord through these foramen. Annulus fibrosus – Annulus (ring) [when you cut a tree, ever noticed the rings.? They are called annular rings] Concentric rings of fibrocartilage and collagen. It’s strong and helps in weight distribution and flexibility in the spine. It forms boundaries to the Nucleus Pulposus Nucleus pulposus – Bovine’s snot Greater elasticity and flexibility for shock absorbtion. It functions like a hydrostatic vessel. Endplates They help contain annulus fibrosus and nucleus pulposus on the superior and inferior aspect. C3 to C6 Transverse foramen (2) – again, same stuff. Transverse (horizontal) + foramen (holes) Bifid spinous processes – bi (two) + fidus (to split) = splitting in two (to accommodate a ligament that runs along the back of the neck) NO OTHER VERTEBRAE HAVE TRANSVERSE FORAMEN!! C1 (Atlas) [SKULL + C 1 = NODDING YES!!] No vertebral body + No spinous processes (only to accommodate the skull) C2 (Axis) [C 1 MOVING RELATIVE TO C 2 = NODDING NO!!] Dens/Odontoid process – tooth-like – it’s the vertebral body of C1 fusing with C2 in the embryonic stage. It also has a bifid spinous process as well as the transverse foramen and transverse process. Transverse ligament holds atlas in place and allows rotation movement. Because c 1 has no vertebral body, there is no intervertebral disc b/w them which is why nodding ‘NO’ is possible. C7 (Vertebrae Prominance) (Makes sense because that’s the big lump on your neck. Drop you chin and you can feel it by touching the back of your neck) No bifid spinous processes (that ligament ends here) It has transverse foramen THORACIC VERTEBRAE (Only vertebrae with articulation (you know what articulation is...joining point) points for the ribs) OKAY.!! LET ME TELL YOU SOMETHING THAT Dr. DRAKE DIDN’T. AGAIN, IT’S NOT SOMETHING THAT SHE MISSED. IT’S SOMETHING THAT MIGHT HELP YOU. Ribs are called Bicephalic. (Bi – two; cephalo – head = two headed) This is a term that you can keep in mind to remember that the ribs have TWO articulation points. One being the Transverse costal facet and another being the superior costal facet. (You know this already...costal = ribs) REMEMBER.!! Articular processes ARE NOT costal facets. LUMBAR VERTEBRAE (Largest vertebral body) SACRUM (It looks like an inverted triangle) Anterior Sacral Promontory – Projection on the anterior side Anterior/Posterior Sacral Foramen – Holes in the front/back of the sacrum Superior Articular Facet – Articular (again...don’t make me say that again. IT’S A JOINING POINT!!) Sacral Canal – It’s the continuation of the vertebral canal Sacral Hiatus – And that’s the opening of the sacral canal. (It’s a canal. It gotta open somewhere -.-) Median Sacral Crest – Median (in the middle) Sacral crest (edge). This the remenance of the fused sacral vertebrae. Sacral tuberosity (you know that means ‘a bulge’. I discussed this above. It’ll take time to settle in) and Lateral sacral crest – Markings on the bone for muscle attachment. STERNUM (breastbone) The BEST (literally the BEST!!) analogy for sternum is ‘an inverted sword’. Manubrium – in Latin means ‘handle’. Look at the handle of this sword. Body – That’s the middle portion – The actual sword. Xiphoid Process – Xiphos – Tip of a straight sword. (Isn’t it insane.?!!) RIBS 12 pairs total (see a connection.? 12 THORACIC vertebrae. Thoracic being the only vertebrae with articulation points for ribs and then 12 RIBS.!!) 7 true ribs o The Ist rib attaches to T1 and the manubrium. o The IInd rib attaches to T2 and the sternal angle. o Ribs #3 to #7 attach to (T3...T7) and the body of the sternum. 5 false ribs o 2 of these are floating ribs o Ribs #8 to #10 attach to the sternum indirectly via a grouped costal cartilage o Ribs #11 and #12 are false ribs and they don’t attach to the sternum at all. APPENDICULAR SKELETON (UPPER LIMBS) (126 bones) PECTORAL/SHOULDER GIRDLE Girdle – belt Clavicle (collarbone) (2) – key Scapula (shoulder blade) (2) – spades/shovel RIGHT UPPER LIMB CLAVICLE (collarbone) It attaches to the manubrium and the scapula. Acromial End – Acros – highest (peak) shoulder Sternal End – towards the sternum Chonoid tubercle – chonoid (cone-like) tubercle (lump) - attachment for the corococlavicular ligament Impression for the costoclavicular ligament - attachment for the costoclavicular ligament Trapezoid line – attachment point of the trapezoid ligament (a part of the corococlavicular ligament) SCAPULA (shoulder blade) It attaches to humerus at the gleohumeral joint and with the clavicle at the acromioclavicular joint. Acromion Process – Acromion (shoulder) + Process (projection) = projection/outgrowth close to the shoulder Coracoid Process – Coracoid (beak of a raven) + Process = projection/outgrowth like a hook resembling to the beak of a raven Spinous Process – Landmark to determine if you are looking at the front/back of scapula. (coz this is visible only from a posterior view) Lateral (Axillary) Border – You know that ‘lateral’ means ‘side’. Since, you gotta remember both of these names, ‘axillary’ – armpit. This will give you the location of the lateral border. Medial (Vertebral) Border – Closest to the vertebrae (doesn’t attach to the vertebrae tho) Subscapular fossa – Sub (under) + scapular (scapula) + fossa (ditch/trench) = Ditch under scapula Scapular (superscapular) notch Glenoid cavity – glene – socket (refering to the ball and socket joint) (articulation b/w humerus & scapula) Superior angle – Angle at the top Inferior angle – Angle at the bottom Infraglenoid tubericle – infra (below) + glenoid (glenoid cavity) + tubericle (lump) = a lump below the glenoid cavity [attachment point for the long head of the tricep of the brancii muscle] Supraglenoid tubericle – supra (above) + glenoid (glenoid cavity) + tubericle (lump) = a lump above the glenoid cavity [attachment point for the long head of the bicep brachii muscle] Just remember these muscular attachments for now. I’ll see what I can do when the Muscular System unlocks. RIGHT UPPER LIMB Arm – Shoulder to elbow Forearm – Elbow to wrist Wrist Hand HUMERUS Greater tubercle – lump seen in both anterior and posterior view Superior facet – for superspinatus muscle Middle facet – for infraspinatus muscle Inferior facet – for terri’s minor muscle Lesser tubercle – lump seen only in the anterior view Provides attachmment for subscapularis muscle Intertubercular (bicipital) sulcus (groove) – inter (in between) tubercle (lumps) = It lies b/w the two tubercles. The long head of the bicep brachii muscle tendon will pass through this sulcus. Head – larger than the glenoid cavity to facilitate greater movement Anatomical Neck – small constriction distal to the head b/w greater and lesser tubercles. Surgical Neck – Lies in the horizontal plane. Axillary Nerve and prosterior circumflex humeral artery pass into deltoid region from the axilla (armpit) immediately posterior to surgical neck. Radial Groove – has the radial nerve and the deep brachial artery Deltoid tuberosity – deltoeides (triangular; refering to the greek letter delta (∆)) + tuberosity (lump) = triangular lump halfway down the shaft of the humerus for the insertion of the deltoid muscles. Body (shaft) Radial fossa – ditch interacting with the radius (anterior) Coronoid fossa – koron (hook) + oid (like) + fossa (ditch) = hook like ; ditch interacting with the coronoid on the ulna (anterior) Olecranon fossa – olene (elbow) + kranon (head) + fossa (ditch) = ditch interacting with the olecranon on the ulna (posterior) Capitulum – caput (head) + ellum (diminuitive) – little head; lateral hemispherical structure which articulates with radius Torchlea – pulley-like thread spool; medial structure articulating with ulna Capitulum & Trochlea are articulating points on the condyle. Condyle – kondylos – knuckles – round prominance at the end of bones Lateral epicondyle – less pronounced impression for posterior compartment muscles to attach to Medial epicondyle – is adjacent and superior to trochlea; major palpable region (Now, you can tell the location of these epicondyles just on the basis of your knowledge of medical terminologies (which I know you have probably mastered by now.!!) Medial – closer to the midline Lateral – away from the midline) ULNA Forms most of the elbow joint with the humerus Olecranon – olene (elbow) + kranon (head) (posterior) [recall when I mentioned olecranon fossa above. Olecranon fuses into that olecranon fossa] Coronoid process - koron (hook) + oid (like) + process (projection/outgrowth) = hook like projection which fuses into the coronoid fossa. Trochlear Notch – Point where the ulna articulates with the trochlea of humerus via the Olecranon. Allows the hinge movement. Radial Notch – Point of articulation with the radius. Ulnar tuberosity – insertion of the brachialis muscle Styloid process – stylos – stylet (thin probe) Ulnar styloid process – is medial RADIUS Head of the radius articulates with the capaitulum of the humerus Radial tuberosity – lump on the radius for muscle attachment (lies more medially) Ulnar Notch - Point of articulation with the ulna. Styloid process – stylos – stylet (thin probe) Radial styloid process – is lateral REMEMBER!! THE HEAD OF ULNA IS DISTAL THE HEAD OF RADIUS IS PROXIMAL THE TWO BONES ARE KINDA IN A JUXTAPOSITION Elbow Joint (HINGE MOVEMENT) (Visualize your doors open/close. That’s how hinges work.) Mostly formed by ulna with humerus In extension, olecrenon (present on ulna) fits into the olecrenon fossa (present on humerus) In flexion, coronoid process (present on ulna) fits into the coronoid fossa (on humerus) Ulna articulates with trochlea of humerus Radius head articulates with capitulum of humerus Ulna Radius Joints (PRONATION – SUPINATION) (forearm rotation) Proximal Radioulnar Joints b/w radius and ulna at the proximal end loose Rotates at the top so that radius can cross over ulna Distal Radioulnar Joints b/w ulna and radius at the distal end Head of radius crosses over WRIST CARPAL BONES (8 BONES) Proximal (closer to your forearm) Scaphoid Lunate Triquetrium Pisiform Distal (closer to your fingers) Trapezium Trapezoid Capitate Hamate Honestly, Dr. Drake dropped some pretty neat tricks to remember these. WRIST JOINTS (where radius/ulna meet carpels) HANDS METACARPALS (head (most distal), shaft (middle), base (most proximal)) PHALANGES = plural; PHALANX = one Naming/numbering start with thumb –call them 1,2,3,4,5 digits. Each digit has a proximal and distal phalanx. Only digits 2-5 have a middle phalanx. (exception: thumb)  APPENDICULAR SKELETON (LOWER LIMBS) PELVIC GIRDLE (made up of 7 bones (Pelvis (6) + Sacrum (1)) Like the shoulder girdle, the pelvic girdle provides areas of muscle attachments but unlike the shoulder girdle, the pelvic girdle provides balance, support and protection to the trunk and different organs. HIP (coxal – coxa – hip) BONES Illium (2) – ilis – groin Illiac crest – Illiac (referring to illium) + crest (top) = top of the illium (site of lots of muscle attachments) Body of illium – Sacoiliac Joint – Articulation of Sacrum + Illium Anterior superior iliac spine – In the front of the illiac crest (site of lots of muscle attachments) Posterior superior illiac spine – Part of sciatic foramen (sciatic (ischiaticus – hip pain) foramen (hole)) Posterior inferior illiac spines – Part of sciatic foramen Auricular Surface – auricle – ear-shaped = this is where illium will attach to one side of the sacrum Greater sciatic notch – sciatic (ischiaticus – hip pain) – boundary for greater sciatic foramen Gluteal lines – attachment point for gluteal muscles Ischium (2) – ishkon – hip Body of Ischium – Ischial spine – Ischial tuberosity (sits bones) – this is what you sit on. Ischial lines – Lesser sciatic notch – boundary for lesser sciatic foramen Ramus of Ischium – Landmark for urogenital system Pubis (2) – os pubis – pubic bone Pubic tubercle – attachment point for inguinal ligament Pubic crest – attachment site for muscle Pubic symphysis – Symphysis (sumphusis – to grow together/unite; which explains its functions) Superior Ramus of Pubis – Inferior Ramus of Pubis – join with the Ramus of Ischium to form ichial-pubis (conjoint) ramus Acetabulum – acetum (vinegar) + abulum (small cup) = a small vinegar cup (It quite frankly, looks like a cup) – fusion of all three bones Obturator foramen – obturo (to stop/block) + foramen (hole) (This name would make much more sense when you’d know the obturator muscles since they block this foramen (hole)) FALSE & TRUE PELVIS FALSE PELVIS TRUE PELVIS BORDERS Posteriorly Laterally Anteriorly Posteriorly Laterally Anteriorly Lumbar V. Upper parts Abdominal Sacrum & Inferior portions Pubic bones of hip bones wall coccyx of ilium & ischium SURROUNDS Lower abdomen Pelvic cavity CONTAINS Superior part bladder, lower intestines, Females Vagina, cervix female uterus, ovaries, uterine tubes Males Prostate gland TRUE (lesser) PELVIS Superior opening is pelvic brim called the pelvic inlet. Inferior opening is pelvic outlet covered by the muscles in the floor of pelvis. RIGHT LOWER LIMB Thigh – Hip to knee Leg – Knee to ankles Ankle Foot FEMUR Head – fits in the acetabulum forming the hip joints. Neck – attaches head to the shaft. Greater trochanter – Trokhos – wheel-like large bone projections for muscle attachments; present laterally and many muscles are attached here. Lesser trochanter – present medially and many muscles are attached here Intertrochanteric line – connects the two (greater & lesser) trochanters Intertrochanteric crest – it’s a bony projection for muscle attachments Gluteal tuberosity – raised surface for attachments of gluteal muscles Body of femur – Linea aspera – ridge for muscle attachments Lateral condyl – kondylos – knuckle – a knuckle like structure found laterally Medial condyl – kondylos – knuckle – a knuckle like structure found on the medial side Lateral epicondyl – epicondyle (epi - above) Ligaments of the knee joint attach here Medial epicondyl – Ligaments of the knee joint attach here Intercondylar fossa – space b/w two large condyles which have walls containing facets for the attachment of cruciate ligaments. LATERAL SURFACES ARE LARGER & STEEPER THAN THE MEDIAL SURFACES Patellar Surface – Adductor tubercle – bony ledge on the medial side for muscle attachment specifically the insertion of the adductor magnus. PATELLA – paten – shallow dish (largest sesamoid bone) Apex – connects the patella to the tibia via the patellar ligament Base – provides thick attachments for the tendon of the quadracep femoris muscle I know that I’ve been using so many terms and spoilers : I’ll use MORE ahead. I can’t help you in ALL of the aspects but maybe a few. You might not know when I’m about to say tendon or ligament. Let me give you something for that. Four letters. B (for bones) M (for muscles) T (for tendons) L (for ligaments) Your possible combinations are: Bones/Muscles + Bones = Tendons/Ligaments (because muscle-muscle connection is not a thing) OR More simply, I can write: B/M + B = T/L Now, write these letters in triplets but arrange them alphabetically. (I’ll explain) B + B = __ o B + B = L (BBL) ▪ Makes sense, doesn’t it.? If the question is how are two bones linked. You already have 2/3 letters of the triplet. (BB_) And you know that your next choice can be either L or T. You also know that you must proceed alphabetically. So that leaves you with L. ▪ B+B=L ▪ Bone + Bone = Ligament B+M=T o Same reasoning goes for Tendons You won’t forget it.!! RIGHT LEG TIBIA (shin bone) – medial bone Lateral/Medial condyle – form joints with medial/lateral condyles of femur to form knee joint Intercondular eminence – raised portion at the intercondular region with 6 facets for the attachment of meniscii and cruciate ligamets. Tibial tuberosity – front of tibia below the condyles. Anterior border – sharp portion descending from the tibial tuberosity Medial malleolus – malleolus – small hammer; large bony projection for stability at ankle joint Fibular notch – distal tibia for articulation with fibula FIBULA – LAteral bone Head – forms joints with tibia Lateral malleolus – Interosseus Memberane – Inter (in between) osseus (bones) – memberane in between the bones Tibia articulates with the femur to form the knee joint. Fibula DOES NOT attach to the femur. Tibiofibular Joints (2) Superior (proximal) Tibiofibular Joints Inferior (distal) Tibiofibular Joints Ankle Joints Talus articulates with the sockets of tibia and fibula to form ankle joints Tibiotalar joints Fibulotalar joints Inferior tibiofibular joints TARSALS Talus – joins with tibia and fibula Calcaneus – forms the heel Navicular 3rd Cuniform (Lateral) 2nd Cuniform (Intermediary) 1st Cuniform (Medial) Cuboid METATARSALS PHALANGES Quite similar to the PHALANGES of the hands JOINTS (articulations/arthroses) Functions Give skeleton mobility Hold skeleton together MODULE 3A: SKELETAL SYSTEM – BONES & TISSUES MODULE 3B: AXIAL SKELETON Here’s how you’d keep the Cranial and Facial Bones in your mind. Remember what I do whenever there’s a pair involved. Just focus on one of them, the other one would sort itself out. I’ll take Cranial Bones for now. Criminal FOSTErParents Each bolded letter denotes a bone. The best part being that none of the facial bones start with these letters except one. (I’ve taken care of it too.) C – Cranial Bones F – Frontal O – Occipital S – Sphenoid T – Temporal E – Ethmoid rP – Parietal (Don’t forget this ‘r’. This will help you distinguish Parietal from Palatine.) This aside, every bone is gonna be a facial bone. MODULE 3E – JOINTS ********************************************************************************************* Well...That’d do it. 124 slides. 2.5 hrs long videos in 23 pages.!! Take a break if you actually stayed till the end and finished this. You deserve it. Must’ve been exhausting.!! I would mention this though. The only way to retain these things is by practicing them as many times as you can. I tried to show you that the content is not as big as you might think it is by using color codes to depict how frequent same thing repeats itself throughout the body. I’ve highlighted some but I’m sure there are more. You’ll have to keep reading these. It’s an entirely different vocabulary. It’ll take time. It’s supposed to. These 23 pages (less than 20, if you remove the spaces left and my chatter XD) shouldn’t take you more than 60 mins. Give an hour or two per day and you’ll notice the difference. That’s how I’d have approached this task if this’d have been my first time studying Anatomy. With that...some formal stuff... I believe that I have covered everything but it’s best to print this PDF and annotate it if you find something missing. If you notice a mistake in this PDF, firstly, I apologize and secondly, make sure you flag it in the group chat so that others can correct their copies too. Good Luck.!!