Applied Science PDF

The Apparel (clothing) and Textile industry. The industry consists of three main segments: ❖ Textile segment (primary industry) Processes fibers (the building blocks of textile materials); produces yarns and fabrics and performs dyeing and finishes. ❖ Apparel segment Transforms...

The Apparel (clothing) and Textile industry. The industry consists of three main segments: ❖ Textile segment (primary industry) Processes fibers (the building blocks of textile materials); produces yarns and fabrics and performs dyeing and finishes. ❖ Apparel segment Transforms textile segment materials into finished products e.g. manufacturers of women's wear, children's wear or menswear. ❖ Retailing segment Buys finished products from the apparel segment and sells them to consumers. Sub-industries 1. Clotech industry It produces non-technical clothing and other textile products that consumers wear e.g. dresses, trousers, jackets, shoes, hats, etc. 2. Protech It produces textile products that are used for protection e.g. personal protective clothing against extreme low or high temperatures 3. Medtech it produces textile products for medical and health applications e.g. medical fabrics to cover wounds, surgical gowns, masks, etc. 4. Hometech It produces home textile products e.g. floor mops, cleaning fabric wipes, pillows, duvets, furniture fabrics, etc. 5. Agrotech It produces textile products for agricultural application e.g. soil covering material for horticulture and agriculture, woven and knitted fabrics bags for packaging of agricultural produce 6. Packtech It produces textile products for goods packaging e.g. packaging bags, transport covering 7. Buildtech It produces textile products for application as building materials e.g. reinforcement of concrete and bricks, lightweight construction materials 8. Geotech It produces textile products for soil application e.g. subsoil reinforcement, erosion control, landscaping, ect. 9. Indutech It produces textile products for application in industrial processes e.g. filtration of dust and liquids, conveyor belts for transportation of goods, waste cleaning fibers or fabrics, 10. Autotech  It produces textile products for application in vehicles e.g auto interior materials Introduction to fibres Fibres The raw materials used to make textile items They are spun or twisted together to make yarns. Yarns Are made from fibres, from either natural or synthetic sources They are interlaced, interloped or blended together to make fabric. Fabrics Are made from yarns, by joining yarns together. Transformation of fibres to garment The processes to convert fibres into garments Fibres are open, cleaned and carded to form a sliver, the slivers pass through the drawframe for doubling and drafting drawn, the sliver is passed through the roving frame for small twist insertion and reduction of its size for preparation for the ring spinning processes that produce a yarn, yarns in the weaving process are arranged length and crosswise to create a fabric and finally a fabric is cut, and the pieces are put together to produce garment. The importance about fibres, yarns, fabrics, and garments  From the point of view of producers, it is about fibres, yarns, fabrics, or garments processing properties. From the point of view of consumers, it is about the end-use performance, durability, aesthetics, comfort (permeability, thermal, moisture transmission), care properties. FIBRE CLASSIFICATION Fibre A unit of matter, either natural or manufactured, that forms the basic element of yarns, fabrics and other textile structures. It is characterized by having a length at least 100 times its diameter or width. The essential requirements for fibres to be spun into yarn include a length, flexibility, cohesiveness, strength, elasticity, fineness, etc. Yarns A continuous strand of twisted fibres suitable for knitting or weaving. Fabric A planar textile structure produced by interlacing yarns or fibres. Fibres Are classified or grouped according to the length of the fibre or the source/origion of the fibre. Classification according to the fibre length Fibres are classified as either staple (short) or filament (long) and this is an important fibre property. Staple fibres. All fibres in this class are short fibres, Length could be 2 to 100 cm. All natural fibres are staple fibres except silk. Filament fibres All fibres in this class are long fibres. The length of filament fibres could be 100s of meters or 1000s of kilometers. Includes all man-made fibres except silk fibre. Fibre length is one of the most important fibre properties in spinning. Natural fibres Are fibres harvested directly from natural plants, animals, and mineral sources. Manufactured fibres Are produced by chemicals manufacturing process, synthetic, regenerated and mineral fibres. Fibre chemistry Fibre - A unit of matter, either natural or manufactured, that forms the basic element of yarns, fabrics and other textile structures. - It is characterized by having a length at least 100 times its diameter or width. - The essential requirements for fibres to be spun into yarn include a length, flexibility, cohesiveness, strength, elasticity, fineness, etc. Three states of matter - Solid - liquid and - solid - There is the fourth one called plasma which is made up of ionized atoms -electrons are separated from the atoms. Introduction At a molecular level, a fibre is a substance made of organic compounds. Organic compound is a substance that contains carbons covalently-bonded to hydrogens and often other elements (nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur etc) e.g. C6H12O6, H2NCHRCOOH; C3H8. Inorganic compound is a substance that does not contain carbon to carbon bond and carbon covalently-bonded to hydrogens e.g CO2, H2O, H2SO4. Compound is a substance composed of two or more different elements e.g. carbohydrates (glucose: C6H12O6), lipids, amino acids, proteins, polyester, nylon etc.  Molecule is substance composed two or more elements e.g carbohydrates (glucose: C6H12O6), lipids, amino acids, proteins, polyester, nylon, H2O, CO2, NaCl, O2, N2. Substance is a matter that has a specific composition and properties. Element is a substance composed of only one atom e.g. hydrogen, calcium, or single: oxygen (O). Atom is the smallest unit that defines an element, it is composed of electrons and nucleus (proton and neutrons). Polymer chemistry - Molecule made of a long chain of many repeating units. - Repeating units are also called monomers. - A monomer is a structural unit of a polymer joined together with other structural units to form a long polymer chain. Usually joined together by covalent bonds. Polymerization - The reaction of monomers to form a polymer is called polymerization. - Degree of polymerization indicates the number of repeating units in a polymer chain. - Degree of polymerization = molecular weight of a polymer divide by the molecular weight of a repeating monomer - Cellulose has degree of polymerization that ranges from 300 – 36 000. Classification of polymer - Polymers are divided into natural and manufactured/synthetic polymers - Natural polymers are: ▪ Cotton ▪ Wool ▪ silk - Manufactured polymers are: ▪ Polyester ▪ Polyamide ▪ polypropylene - Polymers are also divided into homopolymer and copolymer. - Homopolymers are made from a single repeating monomer along the chain of the polymer. - Copolymers are made from two or more different monomers along the chain of the polymer. - Polymers can also be classified based on their chain structure arrangement ▪ Crystalline ▪ Amorphous, or ▪ semi- crystalline - In a fibre polymer, there are both crystalline and amorphous arrangements. - Crystalline arrangement influences fibre mechanical properties like strength whereas amorphous arrangement has an influence on the flexibility of the fibres. Crystalline Crystalline has an ordered arrangement. In this structure the adjacent sections of polymers are held together by secondary attraction forces, while other sections of the same molecules are unable to physically move. Amorphous Amorphous has a disordered arrangement, no defined shape, it is like spaghetti. When amorphous polymers are heated above their glass transition (Tg) they soften and flow. When exposed to light, the light rays can pass through them, and the material is transparent. These polymers are weak e.g polystyrene, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, polyvinyl chloride. Semi-crystalline Semi-crystalline has regions with ordered crystalline and amorphous arrangements. This gives the polymer flexibility and good mechanical properties e.g polyamide, polypropylene, PET, PPS. When semi-crystalline polymers are heated above their Tg, they soften and flow and as the temperature is increased, they will melt above their melt transition temperature. When exposed to light, the light rays are scattered, the material becomes semi transparent or appears cloudy. Polymer fibre properties The kind of monomer units, chain arrangements, chain length and strength of bonds have influence on the geometric, chemical and physical properties of polymer fibres. Classification of fibre properties Geometric Physical Chemical Cross section Density Response to chemical - Area - Linier - Acid - Shape - Bulk - Alkalis Length Heat Sorption - Transition - Dyeability - Melting points - Burning Swelling Swelling Electrical - Optimal - Biodegradability Optimal Mechanical - Surface - Friction - Roughness - Tensile - Elongation Tensile/mechanical properties of textile material Tenacity Breaking extension Breaking load Work of rupture Initial modulus Work factor Work recovery Tensile/mechanical properties of textile material Elastic recovery Yield stress  Yield strain Yield point Creep Chemical resistance to acids and alkalis Acid Alkalis Cotton Poor Good Wool Good to weak acids but Poor poor to strong acids Nylon Poor Good class Excellent excellent Fibre Ph and fibre identification The pH measures how acidic or basic/alkaline a substance is in a specified solution. Its scale range from 0 to 14. In humans the pH of clothing has been reported to cause skin irritation and as such it is important that it must fall within the recommended range. The human skin pH is about 5. OEKO-TEX recommended pH is 4 - 7.5 The human skin pH is about 5. On a pH scale: - A pH of 7 is neutral. - A pH less than 7 is acidic - A pH greater than 7 is basic. - Water has equal concentrations of hydrogen (H+) and hydroxyl (OH-) ions and has a pH of 7. Measuring pH o A pH meter is an electronic device used for measuring the pH (that is the acidity or alkalinity) of a liquid. o The design of a pH meter is a special measuring glass electrode probe connected to an electronic meter that measures and displays the pH reading. o The pH meter probe is a rod like structure usually made up of glass. o At the bottom of the probe there is a bulb with the sensor. o The bulb should never be touched by hand and should be cleaned with thehelp of an absorbent tissue paper. o To measure the pH of a solution, the probe is dipped into the solution. After each single measurement, the probe is rinsed with clean distilled/deionised water to remove any traces of the solution being measured. o For very precise work the pH meter should be calibrated before each measurement. o To maintain reproducible measurements. Calibration should be performed with at least two standard buffer solutions. Calibration steps Clean the electrode by rinsing it with distilled water. Place your electrode in the first buffer solution and begin reading. Rinse the electrode with distilled water. Place your electrode in the second buffer solution and begin reading. Rinse the electrode with distilled water. After all these steps are completed, the sample pH is measured. Fibre identification Conventional fibre identification methods used to identify fibres: o Microscopic test o Solubility test o Burning test and o Staining dye test. Microscopic test o microscopes are used to visualize fibre and yarn shapes, surfaces and cross-sections. Solubility test o Fibres are identified on the basis of their solubility using different chemicals. Burning test o Fibres are identified based on their burning characteristics e.g shrinkage, melting, odour and ash. Staining dye test o The unknown fibres are dyed and then compared with the standard or known dyed fibres for identification based on the colour. CELLULOSIC FIBRES: COTTON o Cotton is a natural plant fibre harvested from a cotton plant. o It is the most common plant fibre used for various applications. o The fibres are attached to the cotton seeds. o The fibres grow inside the seed boll or pods. o Fibres grow inside the ball and when the boll reaches maturity it bursts. o Each boll may contain as many as 150 000 fibres. Physical properties of cotton o Specific density (1.50-1.54 g/cm3) o Tensile strength (25-50 cN/tex), moisture absorption increases fibre strength o Poor elongation (7-10%) o Poor shrinkage resistance, they are prone to wrinkling o Poor elasticity, at 2% elongation it has an elastic recovery of about 74% and at 5% elongation it is about 45% o Moisture absorption (7-8%) and moisture regain (7.1-8.5 %) o Poor insulation because it can conduct electricity Chemical properties of cotton o Poor resistance to acids o Good resistance to alkalis o Good resistance to most organic solvents o Show resistance to insects like moths and beetles, however, silverfish eat cotton. o Poor resistance to bacteria and fungi o Poor resistance to sunlight, exposure causes the fibres to turn yellow o High temperatures damage cotton. It turns yellow at 100oC, at 150oC it gradually decomposes and at 240oC it decomposes quickly Wool fibre o Wool is a fibre derived from the hair of animals of the Caprinae family, mainly sheep and goats. Alpaca hair is also called wool. o Wool produced from the outer coat of domestic sheep is different from hair or fur. It has overlapping scales with crimps. o The scales allow the fibres to stay together and have greater bulk to retain air and heat. o Wool is generally creamy or yellowish white in colour (though some breeds produce black, brown and grey) and has medium lustre. o The natural protein fibre consist of 19 amino acids, keratin, protein and other organic acids. o Wool straight from the sheep contains a high level of grease. This is removed by scouring with detergents such as alkali. o Kemp is the hair like wool with no crimp, no scales and straight. Kempy wool is not good for spinning o Merino wool is fine, soft and lots of crimp Physical properties o Tenacity 8.8-15cN/tex when dry and when wet it decreases to 7.-14cN/tex. o The specific gravity of wool is 1.30-1.32. o Moderate abrasion resistance o Excellent elongation of 25% and elastic recovery of 99% at 2% and 65% at 20% elongation. o Moisture regain 15% and moisture absorption 17% o Degradation starts 130oC and it chars at 300oC Chemical properties o Fair resistance to acid – however, hot strong acids destroy wool. o Prolonged exposure to sunlight will cause the fibre to turn yellow. o Poor resistance to alkalis. o Good resistance to most organic solvents including those used in normal care and stain removal. o Poor resistance to bacteria and mildew o Poor resistance to insect attack. Polyester fibre o Polyester called polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a thermoplastic fibre containing an ester functional group COO-. o It is the world’s dominant man-made synthetic fibre that is produced from petrochemical sources and recycled PET materials. o Polyester has a glass transition temperature of about 70oC and a melting temperature of about 260oC o Because of its crystallinity and it takes a lot of heat energy to open the structure and allow the diffusion of dye. o Its dominance is due to its lower production cost and the desirable range of properties (strength, lightweight, dyeability, wrinkle resistance, and durability) Physical properties o Fineness 1.3 – 6.7 dtex o The specific gravity of 1.3 – 1.39 gcm-3 o Tenacity and elongation vary - High tenacity with 85cN/tex has 7% elongation which is low whereas Low tenacity with 26cN/tex has 40% elongation which is high o Good abrasion resistance o Good resistance to shrinkage o Poor moisture absorption o Moisture regain is less 1% o Poor conductor of heat Chemical properties Good resistance to weak acids Good resistance to alkalis however strong hot alkalis degrade the fibres.  Good resistance to sunlight. Good resistance to organic solvents. Good resistance to mildew Good resistance to insect attack Uses Globally, polyester is by far the greatest man-made fibre with many applications because of its generally good properties at the lower price. Apparel: it accounts for a large share of usage of fibres in clothing Home furnishing: carpets, curtains, draperies, sheets, pillows, pillowcases, upholstery, furniture fillings. Industrial and other uses: tyre cords, filters, wipes, auto upholstery, sail fabric, ropes POLYAMIDE (NYLON) fibre o Polyamides (PA) are thermoplastic synthetic polymers that contain repeating amides, -CO-NH-, linkages. In nylon 66 (or 6.6), the repeat is longer than in nylon 6. o Proteins are examples of naturally occurring polyamides. o They are produced from petrochemical sources and recycled polyamide materials. o Nylon 6 has a glass transition temperature of 25oC and a melting temperature of about 215oC whereas that of nylon 66 is 47oC and a melting point of about 250oC. o The dominance of nylon 6 and 66 over other types of nylons is due to their desirable range of properties (strength, lightweight, dyeability, wrinkle resistance, and durability) Differences between nylon6 and 66 o Nylon 6 has better elastic recovery than nylon 66 o Nylon 6 blends more easily than nylon 66 o The molten nylon 6 polymer is more stable to produce whereas molten nylon 66 polymer tends to be degraded by molten conditions. o Nylon 66 has better tenacity than nylon 6 o Nylon 66 has a higher melting temperature than nylon 6 Production o Sources of raw materials are fossil fuels and recycled polyamide materials. o Nylon polymer chips are melted and extruded at temperatures between 250 - 300oC o Nylon 6 is produced at a lower temperature than nylon 66. o The molten Nylon is extruded through the spinneret to form the filament fibres. o The degree of orientation of the polymer chains depends on the conditions of drawing afternextrusion through the spinneret o The two most common polyamides used to make textile products are nylon 6,6 (polyhexamethylene adiamide) and nylon 6 (Polycaprolactam). o Nylon 6 is made from caprolactam from the cyclic opening of the caprolactam whereas o Nylon 6,6 is made from adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine. o These reactions are polycondensation reactions that release water as a by-product. Physical properties The specific gravity of 1.14 gcm-3 Tenacity 45-90cN/tex Excellent abrasion resistance Good elasticity 20-40% Good resistance to shrinkage Poor moisture absorption Moisture regain is about 4% Poor conductor of heat Chemical properties Poor resistance to acids Good resistance to alkalis however strong hot alkalis degrade the fibres. Poor resistance to sunlight. Good resistance to bleaches with the exception of bleaches containing chlorine Good resistance to organic solvents. Good resistance to mildew Good resistance to insect attack. FLAX fibre o Flax fibres are long fibres extracted from the bark of a flax plant called Linum usitatissimum. o The bark is part of its multi-layer woody stem held together by pectin. o Pectin holds the fibres together tightly and is loosened by rotting or retting. The extracted fibres are cellulosic and can be spun to linen thread, cordage, and twine. o From linen thread or yarn, fine towelling and dress fabrics may be woven. o Flax remains under cultivation for linen fibre in a number of countries including Poland, Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Denmark, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, and the British Isles. o Linen fabric is a popular choice for warm-weather clothing. o It feels cool in the summer but appears crisp and fresh even in hot weather. o Household linens truly made of linen become more flexible and soft to the touch with use; thus, linen was once the bedsheet of choice. Physical properties o Density 1,2-1,5g/cm3 o Fiber length is about 10–100 cm o Tensile strength 65,8 cN/tex o Good strength – One of the strongest natural fibres with a tenacity of 5.5 to 6.5 grams per denier. It is even stronger when it is wet. o Poor elongation and elastic recovery – lower than that of cotton. o Dimensional stability – flax has good natural dimensional stability, neither shrinking nor stretching, however, linen fabrics will crease badly unless given special finishes. o Good abrasion resistance o Good conductor of heat can withstand temperatures up to 149oC. o Absorbs moisture - because it can absorb up to 20 times its weight before it starts to feel damp, the linen will feel cool and dry to the touch. Chemical properties o Good resistance to sunlight than that of cotton. o Poor resistance to acid - strong acids destroy cotton, and hot dilute acids will cause disintegration quickly whereas cold acids cause gradual fibre degradation. o Good resistance to alkalis. o Good resistance to most organic solvents including those used in normal care and stain removal. o Poor resistance to bacteria and mildew o Resistant to insects like beetles Important for fabric properties 70% is composed of cellulose, it cannot provoke allergies, absorbs humidity and allows the skin to breathe. 1. Durability properties 2. Care properties 3. Comfort properties 4. Aesthetic properties Durability properties o Abrasion resistance is good. o Linen can stand rough handling during laundering. Care properties o It can be washed many times without alteration and it becomes softer with time. o It can be bleached using sodium hypochlorite and sodium per borate. o Flax is highly resistant to decomposition or degradation by dry heat and will withstand temperatures to149oC. o The burning characteristics of linen are similar to those of cotton. o Poor resistance to wrinkling Comfort properties o Linen absorbs moisture more readily and dries quicker than cotton, therefore clothing will make wearer feel cooler and more comfortable to wear o Linen is an extremely good conductor of heat making it suitable for summer apparel as it allows the heat of the body to escape. o It is non-allergenic, antistatic and antibacterial. Aesthetic properties o Colour and lustre – unbleached flax varies in colour from a light cream colour to dark tan. o Flax is more lustrous than cotton due to the higher wax content, which gives the fibre a distinctive lustre. Applications o Table wear, suiting, clothing apparel, shirting, surgical thread, sewing thread o Decorative fabrics, bed linen, kitchen towels, high quality papers, handkerchief linen o Upholstery, draperies, wall coverings, artist’s canvases, luggage fabrics, paneling, insulation o Filtration, fabrics for light aviation use o Automotive end uses, reinforce plastics and composite materials o Flax could conceivably be mixed with excess grass seed straw or softwood fibre in composite boards SILK FIBRES o Silk is the only natural filament fibre. o It is a protein fibre made by 23 insects e.g Bombyx mori silkworm. o The primary source is the cocoons formed by the insects (see fig ). o There are two types of silkworms - domesticated silkworms which feed on mulberry leaves, and wild silkworms which feed on non-mulberry leaves. o Cultivated silk is creamy silk white or yellowish-white in colour. Types of silk o Mulberry silk Produced by bombyx mori, it has good mechanical properties. Colour is off- white or yellowish. o Wild silk Silk produced by moths of species other than bombyx mori. Wild silk is not preferred as it shows considerable variations in its mechanical properties. It is brown in colour and more uneven and coarser. Silk fibres o Raw silk Silk that has not had any degumming. o Spun silk Yarns made from staple/short fibres. o Dupion silk - Is made when two silkworms spin their cocoons next to each other. - The filaments interlock and are broken when recovering them. - The yarns made from these filaments are uneven, irregular, and larger than regular filaments. - Waste silk or silk noil: Short ends of spun yarns or in blends with cotton or wool. Silk production process 1. Reeling 2. Throwing 3. Spinning 4. Bleaching 5. Dyeing 6. Degumming Finishing Silk fabrics require very few finishes because they have natural lustre, softness, and drapability. Bleaching: treatment with hydrogen peroxide to whiten the filaments. Dyeing: Silk is dyed with Acid dyes to produce brilliant shades, reactive, basic and pigment can be also be Printing: Silk may be printed by any method like roller, screen or block printing. Physical properties Fineness 1 - 3.5 dtex The specific gravity of silk is 1.3 – 1.37 gcm3 Tenacity 25 - 50cN/tex  Good abrasion resistance Good elongation of 17 - 25% when dry and 30% when wet. Good resistance to shrinkage Moisture regain 10% and moisture absorption is about 30% Ironing temperature is 140-160oC, however at 100oC – 120oC starts to cause decolouration degraded above 170oC Chemical properties Poor resistance to strong acids (more easily destroyed than wool). Poor resistance to alkalis. Poor resistance to sunlight. Good resistance to organic solvents. Good resistance to mildew Good resistance to insect attack. Important for fabric properties 1. Aesthetic properties - silk has good lustre. 2. Durability properties – silk has good abrasion resistance and elasticity. 3. Comfort properties - silk is absorbent and in addition they are lightweight. 4. Care properties - silk has good dimensional stability and can be washed by hand and machine. Uses Silk fabrics Silk fibres are used primarily in apparel and home furnishing products - (products tend to be more expensive). Silk fibres are used make clothing for warm summer wear of their hydrophilicity. Silk fibres are to make clothing for cold weather wear because of their low heat conductivity. Regenerated cellulosic fibres  Regenerated man-made or synthetic fibres are a class of fibres manufactured by the conversion of natural cellulose to a soluble cellulosic solution which is extruded to form filament fibres ex. Viscose rayon, viscose acetate Production Methods that can be used to produce regenerated cellulosic filament fibres are: 1. The viscose process 2. The cuprammonium process 3. The nitrocellulose process 4. The cellulose acetate process. The general principles of rayon yarn production involve the following steps a) To treat cellulose chemically for rendering from it a liquid b) To force the liquid through fine holes c) To change from liquid stream into solid cellulose filaments Viscose rayon fibres o Viscose rayon is a regenerated man made or synthetic fibre made from cellulose containing materials e.g cotton and wood. o Viscose rayon has high lustre and soft hand feel, and resembles silk and came to be known as “artificial silk” However it is more like cotton in its chemical composition Viscose rayon fibre morphology o Structure of rayon when seen under microscope, it appears to be smooth with irregular cross section. o Viscose rayon fibres are rod like with numerous, longitudinal, thread like striations or lines These are due to the indentations of fibre surface. The viscose process Wood pulp is treated with caustic soda to form alkali cellulose which is treated with carbon disulphide to form cellulose xanthate. This is dissolved in a dilute sodium hydroxide solution. A reddish or orange liquid is formed which is filtered and kept for ageing until a thick fluid is formed which is called ‘viscose’. This fluid is forced through fine jets into a dilute sulphuric acid solution bath to form filaments. This production method is widely used In the production of regenerated cellulosic fibres because of its lower cost. Physical properties Less strength than that of cotton and when wet its strength is reduced by 40 to 70%.  Good elasticity than that of cotton but less than that of wool and silk. Good conductor of heat. Has good moisture absorption than that of cotton or linen. Poor resistance to shrinkage, it shrinks more than cotton fabrics. Chemical properties Poor resistance to mildew Resistant to alkalis, however, concentrated alkalis can damage it Poor resistance to acids Can be treated with bleaches Resistant to organic solvent Prolong exposure to UV might cause damage Poor resistance to mildew Resistant to perspiration than cotton Viscose rayon fibre properties important for fabric properties It is bulky to handle and creates bulky fabrics. A flame-retardant compound may be mixed with a viscous solution prior to spinning or after producing. It has high absorbency and purity It is easy to dye. It is a soft material and comfortable to wear. Drapes well. Apparel Blouses, dresses, jackets, lingerie, linings, sports shirts, sportswear, suits, ties, work clothes. Home Furnishings: Bedspreads, blankets, curtains, sheets, tablecloths, and upholstery. Industrial Uses: Industrial products, medical products, diapers, sanitary napkins, and tampons. SUSTAINABILITY Sustainability is the development that meets the current needs without compromising the needs of future generations to meet their development. It has become a central part of environmental discussions, however, it more than that as it also includes economic and social issues Different people use it to emphasise different concerns e.g., economic sustainability, environmental sustainability, and social sustainability. Economic sustainability – focuses on economic issues for better economic conditions created to generate profits. Social sustainability – focuses on social issues for better social conditions created for all humans, e.g., fewer working people, better health services, or less child labour. Environmental sustainability – focuses on environmental issues for the protection of the environment. Land space is limited, and nonrenewable resources are finite. Discarded waste ends up in landfills and incineration facilities and causes environmental and health problems. Ways to achieve sustainability Legislation Recycling Reusing Reduction Upcycling Refuse Challenges Enforcement of laws Consumer behaviour Lack of money Lack of technologies Blending