Applied Linguistics PDF

1 University Hassan II Mohammedia English studies Faculty of letters Applied Linguistics S5 Department of English Kesbi Applied Linguistics 1. Preliminaries...

1 University Hassan II Mohammedia English studies Faculty of letters Applied Linguistics S5 Department of English Kesbi Applied Linguistics 1. Preliminaries The term Applied Linguistics covers many areas of study. The findings of linguistics can be applied, for example, in psychology, sociology, education etc. By implication, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, language-teaching etc. may all be regarded as fields of applied linguistics…. The term Applied Linguistics has been commonly associated with language teaching and learning. A practical reason for concentrating on this field is the fact that a great number of English graduate students from Arab universities become teachers at the secondary school level. 2. The scope of applied linguistics Applied linguistics is a very broad field of study, which is constantly expanding given the nature of the variables at hand, namely, students, teachers and teaching materials. Teaching and learning a language are very dynamic activities for two main reasons: (i) they involve active human beings performing in active human societies and (ii) they bring together various types of learners who keep changing as the social and psychological environments where they live change. Social, psychological and administrative changes directly affect the language teaching and learning enterprise. These factors have been shaping the principles of applied linguistics in no trivial ways. A noticeable shift from a focus on teaching the morphosyntactic form of a target language to teaching different uses of this language, uses that are affected by the context of speech, the type of speaker and hearer, etc. As to the task of the applied linguist, it is to transmit the findings of the theoretical linguist to the language teacher, to allow the latter to implement them in the classroom. In other words, the applied linguist simplifies the abstract concepts and principles of the theoretical linguist in order to make them applicable by a teacher in a classroom situation. Note that the outcome of this application, which is generally reflected in the feedback of the learners, stimulates reactions from the theoretical linguist, who may alter his or her views based on this feedback. It is plausible, thus, to state that the applied linguist bridges the gap between the theoretical linguist and the classroom teacher. In applied linguistics, two criteria need to be taken into consideration: (i) the content to be taught and (ii) the way in which this content is to be taught. These two criteria crucially determine approaches to language teaching, as well as methods and syllabus design. 2.1 Approaches in language teaching and learning The term ‘approach’ needs to be distinguished from the terms: ‘method’ and ‘technique’. According to Anthony (1963), an approach covers the various hypotheses or assumptions about the nature of language, language teaching and language learning. In language teaching and learning, approaches are usually based on linguistic, philosophical and psychological views, as well as on the findings of many human sciences. A given approach may be judged effective or non-effective on the basis of the effectiveness of the methods of  2 teaching and learning that are based on it. Approaches in language teaching and learning are also directly influenced by policy-makers, such as politicians and administrators. As to methods, they may be compared to plans or procedures whereby the material to be taught is presented to the learner in a specific order. Methods in applied linguistics are based on specific approaches. These methods should not contain elements that contradict each other. As to the term “technique,” it covers the various ways in which a teacher implements a method or executes a plan in a classroom. Dialogues, simulation, role-play, etc. are examples of techniques. 2.1.1 The traditional grammar approach The traditional grammar approach is deeply engrained in philosophical research. As such, this approach is essentially mentalistic or rationalistic, in the sense that it views natural languages as vehicles of expressing meaning and is hence intrinsically linked to abstract reasoning. Concretely, the traditional grammar approach is based on the view that natural languages are independent systems of essentially written forms whose function is to express meaning. In literally neglecting the spoken form of languages and, consequently, any aspect of language acquisition, the traditional grammar approach does not presuppose any universal grammar, which would feature the major characteristics underlying all human languages. The traditional grammar approach gave rise to the traditional grammar method. This method was almost the only alternative up to the beginning of the 1960s. The traditional grammar method aims at teaching the form of the target language and not the various functions that this form may be expected to perform. This method focuses on the written form of a language. Thus, it is geared towards developing the written ability of the learners. The traditional grammar method is heavily based on translation, a fact that earned it the name of grammar translation method. According to this method, students learn a language by translating from the target language to another written language or vice versa. …The spoken form of a language is regarded as a ‘vulgar’ and ‘degenerate’ version of the written form and is hence considered unworthy of attention. The traditional grammar approach does not give due importance and attention to the teaching-learning enterprise, let alone the various aspects of teaching and learning methodologies. This approach implicitly considers the teacher to be the sole judge in terms of selecting, grading, preparing, and implementing teaching materials. The structuralist approach The structuralist approach assumes that the explanation of the language phenomenon can be offered only within a psychological and physiological, but not a philosophical, framework. The reason for this is that this approach views natural language as a means of communication, which is acquired through a stimulus-response process and which needs to be taught through this very process. The structuralist approach is a strong reaction to the traditional grammar approach, although it shares the view that language is primarily form, disregarding its functions. The structuralist approach is psychologically based on a mechanistic view of language, that is, a view, which focuses attention on concrete aspects of language and language acquisition. Psychologically, the structuralist approach is based on a behaviouristic view of language acquisition and learning. Because of this, structuralists adopt typically empiricist concepts and views in regard language as a context-free system of forms. According to advocates of structuralism, language is a closed system of forms whose explanation cannot be given in terms of contexts of use or functions to be fulfilled. Furthermore, in its rejection of  3 the traditional approach, the structuralist approach regards the spoken form of language as more important than the written form. It also regards the phonological, morphological and syntactic aspects of language as more important than the semantic aspect, on the basis that the former are more concrete, tangible and accessible than the latter. Within this approach, errors are said to reflect the failure of the student to develop the right habits and remedial work is conducted accordingly. Furthermore, errors caused by interference from the learner's mother tongue or another language are considered predictable; they can be eliminated if a thorough comparative analysis of the target language and whatever language(s) the learner knows is performed prior to teaching. The processes on which the structuralist approach is based can be summed up in the following two points: (i) Memorisation which eventually leads to habit-formation; that is, the learner ends up by memorising a given pattern if he or she repeats it enough times, hence forming a habit based on that pattern; (ii) Stimulus-response, that is, once the learner has memorised a pattern, he or she will automatically produce it on hearing a stimulus, that is, a key word of the pattern, for instance. The structuralist approach gave rise to the structuralist method. This method was firmly established during the 1940’s and the 1950’s, a period, which was strongly affected by the Second World War and its aftermath. These methods proved effective, given the pressing need to learn another or other languages, sometimes for survival reasons. The structuralist method is based on a precise and objective linguistic description of the target language. Accordingly, the major elements of the phonology, morphology and syntax of the language to be taught are first exhaustively described and arranged in an increasing order of complexity before they are taught. The teacher proceeds to orally drill each pattern, that is, make the learners repeat the relevant items, until the pattern is felt to be mastered. The reason for this is that this method is based on the assumption that L2 learning is a matter of memorisation and stimulus-response. A subsequent version of the structuralist method is commonly referred to as the audio-lingual method. This method is implemented in the classroom based on the following techniques: oral exercises; (ii) teaching of vocabulary items and structural patterns commonly used in everyday life; (iii) use of audio-visual teaching aids such as blackboard drawings and flash cards; and (iv) listening and imitation until the learners reach a level where learning becomes automatic. The structuralist approach has many drawbacks. For example, it put too much emphasis on form, to the detriment of meaning and function. Such drawbacks made applied linguists switch to an alternative: the transformational generative grammar approach. 2.1.2 The transformational generative grammar approach The transformational generative grammar approach is philosophically based on mentalistic views and concepts about language. In this approach, language is seen as intrinsically related and monitored by the human brain. … Within the transformational generative grammar approach, errors that learners make are considered a healthy sign, which should be appropriately exploited, rather than a handicap, as they are viewed in the structuralist approach. In spite of the fact that this approach is often cited in the applied linguistic literature, it has had relatively little impact on the field of language teaching and learning. The transformational generative grammar approach gave rise to the transformational generative grammar method. This method is typically rationalistic, in that it takes into account both the abstract and the concrete aspects of language. …The role of the teacher is to  4 evaluate and judge the teaching and learning process. In other words, there is a shift of focus from the teacher to the learner. 2.1.3 The functionalist approach The functionalist approach focuses on the functions of language and regards them as being more important than its form. This approach was put forward around the beginning of the 1970’s as an alternative to the transformational generative grammar approach. Functionalism in applied linguistics may be broadly viewed as a bridge between the theoretical and applied aspects of language. One of the first theoretical leaders of this trend is Hymes (1972), who first advocated the necessity of considering communicative competence as an integral component of language acquisition. …These views are because a number of scholars have devised sets of functions that language is said to have. The functionalist approach regards language as an open system whose explanation cannot be achieved without a consideration of variables other than the form, such as the context of use and the roles of the speaker and the hearer. In the functionalist approach, the task of the applied linguist is to find ways of adapting the multifunctional nature of language to the requirements of the learners. The language teacher’s task is to sensitize learners to the functions of the target language and to teach them what is needed to perform acts with language. The functionalist approach gave rise to the functionalist method in language teaching and learning. This method is also referred to in the literature as the communicative approach, given its focus on communication as the central goal of using language. Parallel to the functionalist approach, many new approaches emerged. One of the major developments in this respect is the situational approach. In this approach, particular focus is put on the situations where the target language is used. Another approach, which can be subsumed under the functionalist approach, is the notional approach. This approach is based on meaning as having the role of relating language to the contexts of use.