APPLIED ETHICS-MA 11 new.docx

**APPLIED ETHICS** Philosophers usually divide ethical theories into three general subject areas meta-ethics, normative ethics and applied ethics. Though we are concerned here mainly with applied ethics but for its clear conception we like to mention both about meta-ethics and normative ethics. **...

**APPLIED ETHICS** Philosophers usually divide ethical theories into three general subject areas meta-ethics, normative ethics and applied ethics. Though we are concerned here mainly with applied ethics but for its clear conception we like to mention both about meta-ethics and normative ethics. **Meta-Ethics** Meta ethics is the critical and analytical study of ethical terms and judgment used in normative ethics. It involves a bird\'s eye view of the entire project of ethics. Meta ethics does not deal with ethical theories or moral judgments but it deals with the questions about the nature of these theories and judgments. Though many thinkers in the field of normative ethics, tried to explain the meaning of ethical terms and judgments but unit 20th century the study of the terms did not become a separate discipline. **Normative ethics** Normative ethics wants to set norms or standards for conduct. From ancient times of western ethics philosophers used these terms in reference to the discussion of ethical theories about what one ought to do. Traditional normative ethical theories were neglected until 1960s and philosophers were busy in defining ethical terms and judgments or in the discussion of meta-ethical problems. But after1960 philosophers once again began to think about how individual ought to live. Consequently we have found different ethical theories in a new form as well as some completely new theories also. Though we observe the continuity of normative ethics during the early part of 20th century, however owing to rise of logical positivism and emotivism the idea of normative ethics was suppressed to a great extent. **Applied ethics** Applied ethics is the application of ethical theories to solve our practical problems. It is difficult to say who first used the term applied ethics. But it may be thought that Peter Singer was one of the philosophers who used \"applied ethics\" to express practical ethics. Applied ethics is not only the analysis of the normative theory or the analysis of terms and judgments used in normative ethics. It has a factual value. It tries to apply normative principles to our moral problems. Any discussion about applied ethics takes into account two features which are necessary for an issue to be considered an \"applied ethical issue\". **First**, an issue is controversial when there are significant groups of people both for and against the issue. Such dilemmas, as for example, are found in bioethical issues. The issues like euthanasia, abortion, doctor patients\' relationship have lots of controversies which cause dilemma in these issues. **Secondly**, to be an applied ethical issue it must be a distinctly moral issue. We are confronted by lots of social problems, which are only issues of social policy. But moral issues concern more universally obligatory practices, such as our duty to speak the truth, which are not confined to our society only. Of course, there are same issues which are at the same time socially and morally prohibited, such as murder is prohibited socially and morally also. But still, they are often distinct. For example, for many people sexual promiscuity is immoral but there may not be any social policies to regulate sexual conduct. Similarly there are social policies to forbid some acts which are not immoral in a sense. So to be an applied ethical issue it must be more than one of mere social policy, it must be morally relevant as well. Here, we may mention some characteristics of applied ethics by which we can distinguish it from meta and normative ethics. These are:- \(1) It helps people and society to clarify concrete problems of ethical urgency, \(2) As a practical ethics its aim is the well-being of people, \(3) Though it is not completely theoretical, it takes help of normative principles or theories to solve the concrete problem in different aspects, \(4) It has a special goal, so it is goal directed. It is directed towards the well-being of people. But to reach its goal one practical philosopher should be conscious about the right ways of well-being and he does not go beyond the social wellbeing. So, practical ethics always takes a social footing. **History of applied ethics** The application of normative ethical ideas into practical problems is not a completely new topic in the field of ethics. There were many moral philosophers including Plato who were concerned themselves with practical questions. Christian philosopher Aquinas held that right and wrong could be recognized by the use of reason. We should apply the role of reason in particular cases that confront us in everyday life. St. Augustine also considered practical problems seriously. \"Augustine and Aquinas \'examined with great care such matters as when a war was just, whether it could ever be right to tell a lie, or if a Christian woman did wrong to commit suicide in order to save herself from rape. David Hume wrote on suicide and Immortality of the soul in 1873. Practical application of ethical theory greatly revealed in utilitarianism. Bentham gave importance on an equal basis for taking into account of everyone\'s pleasure and pain. His ethical theory was applicable to slaves and also to nonhuman animals. Mill was famous for his essay on liberty and on the subjection of woman. In the field of bioethics, Greek physician Hippocrates was famous for his oath, which is known as Hippocrates Oath. The oath symbolizes a physician\'s duties and obligations to his patients. In Indian context, practical applications of ethical ideas were also found in the field of medical treatment and in protection of environment. Caraka and Susruta two ancient Indian Ayurvedic texts stated that physician should reciprocate their patients trust by taking utmost care in treating them. The truth that the destruction and disregard for nature and environment will bring curse to human society was realized in ancient Indian civilization. It is reflected on the Aryan and Vedic hymns. Though traditionally the concept of applied ethics was accepted to some extent for a long time, however during the first six decades of 20th century moral philosophers kept them isolated from practical ethics. One or two notable exceptions were there. As for example, C.E.M. Joad wrote on political issues. He spoke at the famous 1933 Oxford Union debate, when the students voted against fighting for king and country. Bertrand Russell was interested in practical issues. But he was famous for his works of logic and metaphysics among his philosopher friends, not for his writing on disarmament and sexual morality. In fact, these few exceptions could not produce a branch of an academic discipline. Through normative ethics, the study of theories relating to what is good or bad was considered an important part of ethics until 1930s, after that period moral philosophers limited themselves to the study of nature of morality, or the meaning of ethical terms and judgments. As a result of such meta-ethical study a question arises whether there is any role of ethics in deciding what we ought to do. Perhaps meta-ethical discussion of ethics leads it to a position where general people think that ethics has nothing to do with practical problems. But during 1960 the possibility of application of normative theory to our practical problems began to be widely recognized due to some incidents like the U.S. civil right movements, the Vietnam War and the rise of student activism. These issues started to draw to Philosophers into the discussions of the moral issues like equality, justice, war and civil disobedience etc. Philosophers began to realize that the skill which they had acquired in studying philosophy were highly relevant to these issues. A new journal "Philosophy and Public Affairs" in 1971 brought a new dimension to the application of philosophy to public issues. At that time philosopher were able to establish the relevance of ethics into practical issues. This acceptance is particularly noticeable in bio-ethics. And perhaps as a result of it, British government appointed a philosopher, Mary Warnock, to chair its committee of inquiry into "Human Fertilization and Embryology." Later on applied ethics became a part of most of the philosophy departments in English-speaking Universities. **Applied Ethics and Its Relevance to present time** Though applied ethics has been found in a new form during 1960, however its importance was felt before this specific time also. The study of applied ethics gained momentum during recent years as people become conscious of the present events taking place all over the world due to rapid scientific developments. Today more new and genuine problems have been confronted by the modern people, which were completely unfamiliar to our ancestors. These problems mainly arise due to rapid scientific and technological developments. It may be worthwhile to mention that before people had become adjusted to industrial and technological revolution of nineteenth century they were brought into the electronic and thermonuclear age. No doubt, the development of science and technology has brought enough comfort for human being, but at the same time it has given raise some new problems also. Albert Einstein rightly opined that the unreleased power of atom has changed everything except our ways of thinking. He said that people were drifting towards a catastrophe beyond comparison. Today modern men are trying to fulfill their different needs by acquiring scientific techniques. But at the same time they are facing mental conflict for adverse impacts of science and technology. People have now started to think about the loss of ideal values. A good number of new problems stand in our society as a consequence of rapid scientific and technological developments. Bio-ethical and environmental problems are two notable examples which may be cited here among many other examples. Scientific advancement has presented humanity great progress in treating and preventing various diseases. But at the same time it has given new questions and uncertainties about the nature of life and death. The basic question that arises in this situation is whether it is morally right or wrong to do one sort of activity rather than another. Issues such as abortion and euthanasia fortunately are not everyday decisions for most of us, but they are issues that arise at sometimes in our lives. There are many other issues of current concern about which any active participant in our society\'s decisions making process needs to reflect. Environmental issues are also connected with a host of difficult ethical questions. Modern technological developments create a threat not only to human but to non-human and plants also. Modern people are today compelled to think about their survival in a polluted environment of the earth. Though bio-medical and environmental issues are two worth mentioning issues of modern age, but the whole value system have changed due to other scientific developments. Industrial system and machines have made man its slave replacing the quality by quantity and beauty by utility. Science has gifted abandon items to modern people ignoring its detrimental (damaging) effects. It brings major problems when we accept all these gifts of science without considering, what type of comfort and utility we get from these. One significant characteristic of science is that, it divides our world into many branches. No doubt, it makes easy to study all these branches carefully. But when we left it, without making a unique relation among all, it creates some unsolvable value problems. Now every group of people in society has begun to think independently. Business wants to be free to make decision for its own sake. Professional groups like doctors, teachers, lawyers and others are busy with their own interests. Benefits have been brought with it but it brings danger also. Social peace and individual prosperity may remain with the combination of ethical knowledge, law, loyalty and proper scientific development. Without proper ethical knowledge mere science and technology may lead a society to a dangerous situation. Now the question arises whether existing ethical theory can solve different moral problems of mankind in such a critical time. We have already mentioned that modern people have faced new problems which were not present in early society. The changing situation compels us to think about the traditional morality. Here we can think about the role of religious ethics also. The relation between ethics and religion is very old. For some thinkers, ethics cannot do anything without religion and good is nothing but what God approves. But when we depend upon God\'s approval, we already assume God as an omnipotent, omniscient being who is necessarily good. And it is a contradiction to suppose a good supernatural being may give evil commands. When we take this line of reasoning we find that we have already formed an idea of goodness which we impose upon the Supreme Being. And it follows that religion is based upon morality. Before religious commitment, we are capable to make moral judgment. Most philosophers including Kant have accepted the autonomy of morality. Modem moral philosopher Peter Singer, in his book "Practical ethics\" states that ethics is entirely independent of religion. Ethics is concerned with human voluntary actions. The objective of ethics is to tell us what we ought to do and what not. Ethics is related to man\'s welfare living in the society. To solve our modern day's problem we should make ethics free from religion. Giving up our personal emotion and faith we should look after our problems from scientific outlook. In this respect relevance of applied ethics is worth mentioning. In applied ethics a philosopher wants to apply normative principle keeping view in the moral conflict. Direct use of traditional normative principle cannot solve our moral dilemma. As for example, in 1982 a couple from Bloomington Indiana gave birth to a severely retarded baby. The infant was known as Baby Doe. His stomach was disconnected from his throat and was unable to receive nourishment. Although this stomach deformity was adjustable by surgery, his parents did not want to bring up a severely retarded baby and they chose to deny surgery, food and water for the infant. Local courts supported the parent\'s decision and six days later Baby doe died. There were arguments in favor of corrective surgery from the infant\'s right to life and the principle of paternalism which indicates that we should pursue the best interest of others when they are incapable to do for themselves. But there were arguments against the corrective surgery also. The quality of life of Baby Doe would have been poor and in any case it probably would have died as a result of corrective surgery. Again it would have been a significant emotional and financial burden to his family. So there were stronger arguments against surgery than for surgery. Not only in case of bio-ethical issues, but applied ethics have to play an important role in different spheres of our moral dilemmas such as in environmental, professional, business issues etc. In solving different moral dilemmas applied ethics keeps in view on some basic principles. The following principles are most common in applied ethical discussions: \(1) Personal benefit (2) Social benefit (3) Principle of benevolence (4) Principle of paternalism (5) Principle of harm (6) principle of honesty (7) Principle of lawfulness (8) Principle of autonomy (9) Principle of justice (10) Rights: acknowledge a person\'s rights to life, information, privacy, free expression and safely. **Branches of applied ethics** In true sense, we cannot say that there are separate branches of applied ethics. All moral problems are interrelated. But for an analytical study we may introduce different problems as branches of applied ethics. Here we discuss about three main branches of applied ethics. **(1) Professional ethics** Every society has its special rules and regulations approved for individuals living in the society. There are different kinds of sanction such as panel, moral, civil etc. These rules comprise all men equally and in general there is no exception of it. As a member of the society each person has to obey these rules. Not only as duty-bound individuals, but it is man\'s inner nature which compels him to follow up his duty towards fellow people. But there are some duties which are not general to all individuals. These special rules and duties are confined into some people of a group. Aristotle had observed that the morals of a man are not those of a woman. Again morals of the adult are not those of the child and morals of a slave and a master are not alike. However, in present time the observation made by Aristotle has attained a great dimension. Now a day\'s different groups of people are there to carry out different duties entrusted upon them. For example there are doctors, merchants, lawyers, soldiers, priests and many others. These groups of people perform their duties separately. Each of these professional groups has its own professional duty that constitutes professional ethics. In a broad sense profession is anything done for living. An individual has various roles in life and he has to play a particular role in his occupation. The broad sense of profession includes all types of occupations. In this sense pocket picking is also a profession. But when we go to discuss about professional ethics, the restricted sense of profession comes to our mind. To fulfill the restricted sense of profession, Robert Fullinwinder has offered three criteria, such as (1) an orientation to public good (2) a specialized knowledge and training and (3) a dependent vulnerable clientele. In this sense professions of divinity, law, medicine and military were called professional in early time. Now a days this sense includes a larger professions like engineers of various sort, teachers, researchers, bankers, politicians and so on. The sense of professional is associated with some special ideas, besides the above criteria, such as academic learning and a certain level of mental development. Moreover people who live in a high social status, society expect from them a high standard of conduct and moral responsibility. Because of these expectations it is more shocking for people when a priest sexually abuses a young girl than when a shop manager does this same thing. These above discussed criteria stand a question, can we consider others occupation such as train drivers, electricians, plumbers and others as professionals? Though they have no academic knowledge or high social status but they have special knowledge and training for which we depend upon them. They have a moral duty towards other people. For example, when the electrician is wiring our house, he has a moral obligation to do it safely. In a general sense we cannot say that they are not professional. Whatever the job may be, every included person has his responsibility and moral duty towards others who depend on his profession. He or she should have a professional attitude and special responsibility. Just as a lawyers and doctors have special responsibility towards his patient or client, an electrician also has the special responsibility to the wring at house. But the special notion of professional ethics rests on the idea of the difference of general moral code and professional moral code. It is also a matter of controversy that whether there is special professional moral code excluding from universal moral code that means the autonomy of professional ethics. Some philosophers believe in universal ethics and for them ethics are similar whether a man is a professional or a nonprofessional. Some other argues that same moral principle can be applied to general as well as in professional context. And there are other philosophers who believe in the complete autonomy of professional ethics. When we introduce these notions to our discussion, we see that there are some universal moral codes which include all of us. We may apply our general moral code, such as,"do not cheat others\", or "do not harm others\", to the electrician who wires the house. It seems that in some cases, like the case of electrician, general codes are sufficient to act morally. But general moral codes are not always sufficient to handle complex situations which arise in some professions. A universal and professional code of ethics is not always the same. As for example, universal ethics holds, "do not tell a lie\", but it is important question for a doctor whether he should tell the truth to a patient about his disease or not. Should the teacher tutor his own pupils for pay, is a question of teacher. Each profession has its own specialty, moral conflict and problems. We cannot handle various professional problems of our present time by a universal moral standard. Ordinary people do not understand the particular professional situation due lack of special knowledge of this field. An ordinary person may not know what the physician knows. A physician also does not know about what a soldier should do in a complex situation of a battle field. Profession enforces certain duties, responsibilities and obligations to those who enter into that particular profession expecting the person to be competent and trust worthy. The obligations that professions attempt to enforce are referred to as role norms. Thus, the professional role morality is to be distinguished from standards imposed by external bodies such as governments. Sometimes professional codes also specify rules of etiquette and responsibilities to other members of the profession. For example the American Medical Association instructed physicians not to criticize another physician and urged all physicians to offer professional courtesy. But in view of the above discussion it cannot be stated that there is no relation between professional ethics and general ethics. A professional has double obligations. He has an obligation to his profession as well as to the society. But as an independent profession some kind of autonomy must be observed by each profession. Professional ethical codes are necessary to prevent interference of other agencies of society. These codes are also important in developing higher standard of conduct. The codes can clarify the misunderstanding and conflicts which occur within a professional group. Some of them come to criticism from a larger point of view. Professional codes are beneficial if they include effective moral principles. Unfortunately some professional codes oversimplify moral requirements or claims. To avoid the criticism, we need to monitor some important aspects in accepting of professional code, such as, - (1) whether the code attempts to fulfill only selfish interest or to advance the profession economically? (2) Whether the code is definite and clear or is it based on vague idealism? (3) Whether the code represents only a small minority within the profession or as a whole. **(2) Bio ethics** We have already stated that the advances in scientific knowledge and biotechnology have presented humanity great progress in treating and preventing diseases. But at the same time it has created some problems to humanity. Rapid advancement of technology has given us the chance to manipulate life with an extreme degree of freedom. In the past we depended only on the force of nature. Starting with the hybridization of plant and animal species in early times and more recently to extend genetic manipulation and cloning have become possible for human being only due to advanced technology. And there by science brings new horizon in biological life cycles that were not part of the original natural program. Cloning is most well-known word of modern age. Cloning means to make identical copy of an object. In the context of higher animal or even human clone means to make a creature using a microscopic bit of a selected animal through a series of delicate and complicated technical process which is supposed to be a look alike of the original. Although many good things have been said about the possibilities of utilizing human clones for the benefit of man, but the question remains unsolved whether it is morally acceptable or not. Not only cloning but there are some other complex and controversial issues like abortion, euthanasia, surrogate mother etc. The effect of these issues on humanity is not confined to a particular nation but its impact is observed in all types of industrial societies to some extent. For example now a day\'s amniocentesis and abortion create moral problems in every society. Moreover, expansive life sustaining technology creates some other problems almost in every country. In this connection bioethics has played an important role in international interest. Bioethics is a branch of ethics and more specifically of applied ethics. The term bio-ethics includes the broader area of bio medical sciences and the health care profession. Van Rensselaer Potter used bioethics to describe his proposal regarding the need of an ethic that can incorporate our obligations not just to other humans but to the biosphere as a whole. Though the term is used occasionally in this sense of an ecological ethics, it is now commonly used in a narrower sense of the study of ethical issues arising from biological and medical sciences. According to Reich, bioethics can be understood "as the systematic study of human conduct in the area of the life sciences and health care, in so far as this conduct is examined in the light of moral values and principles\". The modem field of bioethics emerged in the 1950's and 1960's and supersets a radical transformation of the much older and traditional domain of medical ethics. The late nineteenth century was dominated by the idea of positivism. It was the predominant attitude that science produced facts which were solid and did not need to be questioned. Ethics and values were neglected to some extent and they were treated as a part of religion. For a long time people remain unaware about the negative side effects of scientific products and advanced technology. Gradually, different moral problems created by modern technology have compelled humanity to think that facts cannot be separated from values. As a branch of applied ethics, bioethics tries to clarify concepts of our moral dilemma and also to find out a tentative solution. It is also not unjustified to claim that health care and biomedical science are playing a central role in our cultural change. As for example in last hundred years United States and others nations have considered about patient\'s rights, legalization of abortion and contraception, a free health care service, definition of death etc. from a new outlook. The changing attitude and law constitute a major cultural development which is the outcome of interplay between technology and culture. Bio ethics plays a vital role in the mutual intellectual adaptation of culture and biotechnology. Any particular culture is likely to contain a cluster of somewhat contrary, though no actually contradictory. When one tries to find out a definite and consistent account of a problem through its culture, then one will require to analyze concepts and values and to criticize the advantages and disadvantages of alternative concepts. This task is a philosophical task; it is not one of empirical anthropology or sociology. It is not the attempt to decide what people usually hold about right conduct in particular society, or by a group of people. This is not simply an academic endeavor also. As it is related to our particular life problem, it seeks a rational and consistent answer. It is an attempt to look at reasons and to determine what reasons should be credited as impartial, unprejudiced and not based on particular culture but are consistent on the force of rational arguments. As a branch of ethics the nature of bio ethics is also relevant to ethics. In our previous chapter we have discussed that ethics cannot be a subjective idea or it is not confined to a particular group of people. But when we depend upon individual choice, it does not mean that there is no room of personal choice. Bio ethical issues like abortion and euthanasia involve directly personal choice. But in an ethical choice there are some scopes for arguments. As for example in ordinary choice, when one says, "I like red colour" and other says, "I like green colour\", the two choices do not contradict each other. But when one claims \"abortion is right\" and another claim that \"abortion is wrong"; they must have to offer some arguments in support of their choice. And these arguments should be based on rational ground. One may again demand about ethical relativism sometimes known as cultural relativism, going ahead a step from ethical subjectivism. This relativism holds that ethical view does not depend upon individual attitudes but on the attitudes of the culture in which one lives. But if ethical views depend upon a particular culture we cannot say that one culture is wrong and another is right. And we have to accept \"slavery\" or the "act of burning of widow" on the funeral pyre of her husband, as good, if one culture allows it as justified acts. But, we cannot accept some acts from our moral point of view or it may be said that some acts are always wrong whether from a personal point of view or from a social point of view. Ethical views do not depend upon religions belief also. Though there is a close connection between religion and morality, but ethics and religion are fundamentally independent. When we are trying to analyze the concept of a religious person \"God is good\", then we see that the idea of \"good" is prior to the idea of God. If there is no idea of \"good", how can one impose it on? That means logically ethics is prior to religion. Today\'s most popular idea of ethics is that, ethics must be universal and an ethical idea must depend upon a rational ground. Oxford philosopher R.M Hare says that when one makes an ethical judgment, he must be prepared to state it in universal terms. By universal terms, Hare indicates that these terms do not refer to a particular individual. As bioethics is a branch of ethics, its nature must be relevant to the nature of ethics. Bio ethics does not reflect only an individual or a particular cultural ideas or intuition of a prophet. Secular bio ethics is framed by men and women and their rational thinking, not by gods and goddesses. Secular does not mean antireligious; it only means that it is an approach through rational outlook without the special illumination of some divine grace. H Tristram Engelhardt stated, "bioethics is a philosophical undertaking that springs naturally from the delivery of health care and the development of bio medical sciences in social context marked by pluralism and rapid technological change, but without an imposed orthodoxy". Though ethics is independent of religion, in solving ethical dilemmas, we cannot deny the importance of the wisdom and experience of religious tradition. It should be kept in mind that wisdom and experience are acceptable not as the utterances of a prophet but as sound and reasonable utterances. Ethics also does not depend upon law. Rightness and wrongness of an action cannot be settled by its legality or illegality. But we evaluate laws from an ethical perspective. Many questions relating to bio ethics arise from the legal\| questions while allowing some practices, for example, should we allow surrogate pregnancy, or embryo experimentation or cloning? Not only law oriented questions but bioethical issues try to solve ontological questions. For example, now a day the definition of death is in a confused state. We seek an intellectual clarification of death whether death means the death of whole body or a living body with a completely dead brain. Technological developments lead us from a whole body oriented definition of life and death to a brain oriented definition of life and death. The changing ontological view of life and death, in turn also have shaped our general understanding of ourselves. Attempts have been made to solve bio ethical dilemmas through different ethical theories. On account of this, we may mention about two theories, namely consequentialist and deontological theories. Consequentialism is the moral theory for which rightness and wrongness of an action depend upon its consequences. The most prominent consequentialist theory is utilitarianism. Utilitarian maintains that the moral rightness of action determined by their consequences, in particular by the maximization of the non-moral value produced by the action. On the other hand deontological theory holds that the rightness of an action cannot be determined by only its consequences. Besides the consequences of an action there are other some features which decide its rightness or wrongness. The deontological and consequentialist are divided into many groups which hold their attitudes differently. These theories seem to be right from a particular point of view. But bio ethical problems are so complex that it is not an easy task to find out a solution from the direct use of any one of the theories. At present, in bioethical field, philosophers try to apply some moral principles which can comprise all complexities involved in these problems. One of the worth mentioning systems in this respect is \"principlism", developed by American philosopher Tom Beauchamp and the American theologian James Childress, in the late 1970s. In their book "Principle of Biomedical Ethics, Beauchamp and Childress have discussed about the four principles known as, (1) respect for autonomy, (2) the principle of nonmaleficence, (3) the principle of beneficence and (4) the principle of justice. For example, reflection of these four principles is well understood in case of a patient who is in a state of coma and kept alive by mechanical device for life function. In view of this, patient\'s family members may argue that if the patient is in a state of making decision, he would never want to live on a life support machine. Keeping view in patient autonomy, his family members would argue that he should be disconnected from the life support machine and allow dying peacefully. On the other hand keeping view in the principles of beneficence and nonmaleficence that means the fundamental desire to help the patient or to refrain from harmful actions, doctors and hospital staff would not like to terminate the life support machine. Medical ethicists may consult on such case and help in deciding which of these conflicting principles carry the most weight. Some other medical ethicists employ a system known as casuistry. The approach is to examine a complex problem and try to solve the complexity by analyzing a similar hypothetical case. Robert Veatch in his book \"A Theory of Medical Ethics\", proposed a new social contract between society and medicine. This "contract comprises basic ethical principles for society as whole, a contract between society and the medical profession about the latter\'s social role and a contract between professionals and lay persons that spells out the rights and prerogatives of each". Contemporary feminist ethicists have given importance on feelings and emotions in making a moral decision. They have criticized that influential philosophers of the past had given importance on abstract principles and role of reason instead of personal relationship and the part played by emotion. \"An ethic of care\", is the development of this criticism. The ethic of care seems to be especially applicable to the work of those involved in direct patient care. In spite, of applying different theories, principles and discussion, bio ethical issues are still controversial. Daniel Callahan suggests, that \"the first task of bioethics is to help clarify what should be argued about. A closely related task will be to suggest how these issues should be argued so that sensible, moral decisions can be made. Finally, there will be the more advanced, difficult business of finding and justifying the deepest theories and principles"'. **(3) Environmental Ethics** According to the traditional definition of ethics, ethics is concerned with the voluntary actions of human beings living in the societies. In this traditional sense we see the human centric approach of ethics. But some modern ethicists think that we need a new ethics which enables us to give a new approach of ethics concerning non-human beings and our whole surroundings in which we live. Moral philosophers have given interest to such areas like environmental ethics, animal ethics, bio-ethics, during the last three decades of the twentieth century. Among many other practical problems which have been faced by modern people, environmental issues raise a number of difficult ethical questions. The word 'environment' broadly refers to everything around us. By environment we mean not only our immediate surrounding but also a variety of issues connected with human activity, productivity, basic living and its impact on natural resources such as land, water, atmosphere, forests, dams, health, energy, resources, wild life etc. The questions of environmental ethics are mainly related to some questions, like, is there any duty towards non-human being, or should ethics be human centric only? How science and technology are responsible for today\'s environmental crisis? Etc. In this chapter as we have taken into consideration environmental ethics as a branch of applied ethics, we simply try to analyze the main issues relating to environmental ethics. Later on elaborate discussion and analysis will be made from different angles. To analyse the question whether there is moral duty towards non-human being, we have to see the field of relation. Ethical relations have been developed through the inter relation between one group to another group or one individual to another individual. It is an interaction. Again moral action can be judged by one who possesses the ability of judging, who has the idea of moral grounds and criteria. That means one who judges moral action, he must have some rationalities. So human being only can be such an evaluator, not plants and other non-human being. In this sense the domain of moral relation consists only of human beings possessing a certain kind of rationality. Secondly moral relation is a kind of social relation which can exist between one man and another, or between one group and another. Communication also may take place between one man and another or one group and another group. Therefore, moral reason, resentment, appreciation, admire, gratitude etc. can take place within human being. It is not possible to interact with plants and animals. Entering into a moral relationship is thus to participate in social transaction. These reasons are helpful to create a human centric model of ethics. This model have the tendency that though there are no moral interactions between man and other non-human being, all these things are useful to man in many ways. In this sense a non-human being always have an instrumental value. Philosophers describe this view as "anthropocentric". This "anthropocentric" view evaluates nature on the ground that the basic needs of human like space, food, shelter, water, energy etc. are provided by nature and nature serves as instruments for the satisfaction of human needs and desires. This view also presupposes man\'s superiority over nature. Secondly, the gradual developments of philosophy and science have contributed in growing the idea of superiority of man. The unexplainable earth created the mysterious feeling to our early ancestors. They often saw deities or sparks of the divine throughout their surroundings. Mysterious nature of earth and religious attitudes helped in preserving nature. The truth that the destruction and disregard for nature will bring curse to human being was realized in ancient Indian civilization and it is reflected in the Aryan and Vedic hymns. The old religious beliefs and superstitions of tribal still survive in the remote areas of Bihar, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh. One such tradition is the worship of the spirits residing in sal trees and the resultant ban on cutting of sal trees until it passes a certain stage in its life. The belief in holy rivers sometimes helped to prevent the pollution of the rivers. Gradually, with the improvement of monotheism in both east and west, God became disembodied and lived apart from the physical realm. New scientific knowledge began to explore nature and it becomes sufficient to forget the mysterious nature of earth. The natural environment is dynamic and naturally changes occur in it. In its natural un interfered condition, the environment of any region is in state of dynamic equilibrium. This is what is called the balance of nature. And all natural eco systems were balanced and unaffected by man until the down of civilization. But not only the need but also the greed and ignorance of human being over exploit the nature. Thirdly, this is an age of science and technology. We have the scientific and technological knowledge to use it in practical field. But technology is generally developed without careful consideration of its different complicated and unexpected results. In most cases a new technology is developed for the short term benefits. However it does not create any immediate problem on set. Probably, the most typical example of this process is the development of modern industrial technology involving the emission of large amount of carbon dioxide. As carbon dioxide is a natural part of atmosphere and to certain level it is harmless to human health. But especially over the few decades, due to heavy industrialization and deforestation, carbon dioxide emissions have increased dramatically. And for the natural processes it is impossible to work on it, such as photosynthesis and absorption by the ocean and seas. As a result, the earth is warming up and if we cannot control it, the existing ecosystem has to face a crisis of unprecedented proportion. Today we enjoy the fruits of technological development without the proper knowledge of its future impact. The emission of carbon dioxide is one of the examples of our environmental degradation. There are other lots of factors which are responsible for many complicated environmental problems. Thus, lacks of proper knowledge about technological implementation and human centric approach towards nature have greatly helped to degrade our environment. Today environmental degradation has reached its peak and now it poses serious threat to humanity. In contrary to human centric ethics, contemporary ethics declines to confine moral standards to human interest only. They argue that some non-human animals are also sentient. Some contemporary thinkers again, appeal beyond sentience to the capacity of all living organism to develop in the manner of their own kind. This direction of thought has reached its peak in the theory of eco-centrism. Eco-centrism is based on, and inspired by the findings of the science of ecology. The term ecology derives from the Greek word 'Oiks' that literally means house. The term was coined by Ernst Haeckel, a German biologist, to denote the investigations into the inter relationship between animals, plants and their inorganic environment. Aldo Leopold, the American philosopher first felt the need of eco centric environmental ethics, more than half a century ago, an" ethics dealing the man\'s relation to the land and to the animals and plants. Aldo Leopold entitled it as 'land ethic'. His aim was to enlarge the boundaries of the community to include soils, waters, plants and animals, or collectively the land. Philosophers who embrace this view are termed as \"holistic thinkers\". The holistic land ethic is the first paradigm of eco centrism in environmental ethics. In contemporary environmental philosophy it is known as \"deep ecology\" ethics. The central idea of deep ecology is that humans are just one of the millions of species, not higher or lower, only a part of the world. For the healthy functioning of the earth all parts are equally important. Related to the land ethic another attractive vision put forth by environmentalists the Gaia theory named after the ancient Greek goddess of the earth. For this theory earth is simply one big organism, with parts and systems that relate and interact in an orderly manner. Controversy and criticism have been raised against Gaia theory or to deep ecology. But these eco centric theories direct us to extend our moral concern to non-human and non-living beings. In general, the problem of ecology is dealt from natural and scientific perspective and not from a philosophical one. Recently philosophers have given interest in ecological issues keeping in view the increasing ecological problem, in a philosophic manner. The ethical standard which is applicable to ecology gives birth of eco ethics. Though ecology and environment are not synonymous, generally the term \"environmental ethics\" is used in the same sense of \"eco-ethics\". Since 1960s and early 1970s, philosophers have given interest in different contemporary moral issues and the new field of eco ethics has developed. In the past 10 years not only from a philosophical point of view but also from general awareness of people, environmental ethics has gained its momentum. A good number of non-government organizations have been noticed to come forward for making clean and healthy environment. In this crucial time it is the philosopher\'s duty to analyse environmental problems from a philosophical point of view. Though moral philosophizing is not limited to moral philosopher only, ethical theory is the special subject matter of philosophy. Many critics feel that ethics has only theoretical value and eco ethics is applied one, therefore, there is a gap between theory and practice. Now it is the time to improve ethics from the theoretical discussion to practical utilization. **The key takeaways from the text include:** 1. **Ethics and Law Relationship**: Ethics and law are distinct but interconnected. While ethics guide moral decision-making, laws are evaluated ethically. The changing views on life and death, such as defining death, raise complex bioethical dilemmas. 2. **Ethical Theories**: Two main ethical theories, consequentialism and deontological theory, offer different perspectives on moral decision-making. Consequentialism focuses on the outcomes of actions, while deontological theory considers other features beyond consequences. 3. **Principlism in Bioethics**: Principlism, developed by Beauchamp and Childress, integrates four key principles - respect for autonomy, nonmaleficence, beneficence, and justice - to address the complexities of bioethical issues. 4. **Medical Ethics**: The application of ethical principles in medical dilemmas, such as decisions regarding life support, involves balancing autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence, and justice. 5. **Environmental Ethics**: Environmental ethics expands moral considerations to non-human beings and the environment as a whole. It raises questions about human-centric ethics, the impact of science and technology on environmental issues, and the need for a philosophical analysis of values in environmental problems. 6. **Applied Ethics**: Applied ethics involves the practical application of normative principles in moral conflicts, such as the case of Baby Doe, highlighting the importance of personal benefit, social benefit, benevolence, harm, honesty, lawfulness, autonomy, justice, and rights in ethical decision-making. 7. **Professional Ethics**: Professionals have dual obligations to their profession and society, necessitating autonomy and adherence to professional ethical codes to prevent external interference. The relationship between professional ethics and general ethics underscores the importance of ethical conduct in professional roles. 8. **Bioethical Issues**: The rapid advancements in science and technology, particularly in biomedicine and healthcare, have led to ethical dilemmas like genetic manipulation and cloning, prompting the emergence of bioethics as a field to address these complex ethical challenges. 9. **Cultural and Societal Impact**: Technological developments have brought comfort but also raised moral conflicts and uncertainties, especially in bioethical and environmental issues. The changing value systems due to industrialization and blind acceptance of scientific gifts without considering consequences highlight the need for ethical reflection amidst rapid scientific progress.