A&P Lab Notes PDF

Chapter 1 Anatomy & Physiology Introduction Chapter 1.1 Chemistry j Electrolytes is when ions are dissolved in water, they separate from salts forming an electri...

Chapter 1 Anatomy & Physiology Introduction Chapter 1.1 Chemistry j Electrolytes is when ions are dissolved in water, they separate from salts forming an electrically conducting mixtures (all ions are electrolytes) S Equilibrium/ Homeostasis: the way the body maintains balance Electrolytes are crucial for homeostasis & cell function Electrolytes balance is one of the most important considerations in patient care Severe electrolyte imbalance can impact myscle contractions, nerve impulses, & even cardiac functions. Chapter 1.2 Anatomy Terminology & organ systems S Anatomical position is a position in which: the body is erect feet are shoulder width apart palms facing forward (anterior/ventral) thumbs pointing away (laterally) from the body - Directional Terms in A&P J Anterior (ventral): towards the front of the body Y Posterior (dorsal): towards the back/ rear of the body S Superior: towards the head or upper portion of the body Inferior: towards the tail/lower body that is away from the head or upper body " Medial: towards the midline or center of the body only Y Laterial: away from the midline or center of body & Median: towards the midline or any body part that has left & right halves & Superficial: towards the surface or skin of the body & Deep: away from the surface, close to the body's interior & Intermediate: inbetween superficial and deep layers Y Proximal: towards the point of origion or joint or limbs point of attachment J Distal: away from the point of origion or limbs point of attachment Chapter 1 Anatomy & Physiology Introduction Chapter 1.2 Anatomy Terminology & organ systems Regional Terms (must include region in answer) Serous Membrances & Body Cavities Serous Membrances: thin layers of tissue composed of 2 layers & cells that produce serous fluid An outer parietal layer: attached to the body wall & its structures An inner visceral layer: attached to specific interal organs also know as viscera Serous fluid: Serves as lubricant for the organs allowing them to move freely without friction in the cavity Found in the space between the parietal & visceral layer Major Cavity 1: Anterior/ Ventral Cavity Made up of 2 minor cavities thoracic & abdominopelvic cavities found anterior side and separate by the diaphram Thoracic Cavity: Located above the diaphram and encases the organs. Made up of 3 smaller cavities Mediastinum: a space between the lungs, that starts from the base of the neck to the diaphram Contains heart, esophagus, great blood vessels, trachea, bronchi, lymph nodes/vessels & nerves Pleural Cavity: spaces that surround the lung Contains the parietal & visceral pleura (serous membrances), and plueral fluid Pericardial Cavity: a space between the lungs that contain the heart & other cardiac structures only Contains parietal & visceral pericardium and pericardial fluid Chapter 1 Anatomy & Physiology Introduction Chapter 1.2 Anatomy Terminology & organ systems Major Cavity 1: Anterior/ Ventral Cavity Made up of 2 minor cavities thoracic & abdominopelvic cavities found anterior side and separate by the diaphram Abdominopelvic Cavity Located below diphram and contains majority of digestive, urinary, lymphatic, endocrine & reproductive organs. Made up of 3 smaller cavities Abdominal Cavity: a space located above pelvic cavity Contains majority of digestive organs & some urinary, endocrine, &l lymphatic organs Pertioneal Cavity (holds & suspends the organs in place): Located inside abdominal cavity between the peritoneum (serous membrane) Outer parietal peritoneum: lines the wall of cavity Inner visceral pertioneum: suspends abdominal viscera from the body wall covers & hold in place Pertioneal fluid (serous fluid) Intraperitoneal: Within the cavity, liver, most of small intestine, most of colon, stomach, spleen & part of pancreas Retroperitoneal: Organs posterior to the peritoneal cavity & its other side lie against posterier wall kidneys, adrenal glands, the sex organs, urinary bladder, part of colon, & part of pancreas Pelvic Cavity: Located below pelvic brim and contains urinary bladder, ovaries, rectum & prostate gland Major Cavity 2: Posterior/Dorsal Caviity Made up of 2 minor cavities: cranial & vertebral cavities which contains major of the nervous system Both cavities are lined with membranes called meninges Cranial Cavity: Contains the brain, enclosed in the skull Vertebral Cavity: Contains spinal cored, enclosed in the vertebrae i Chapter 1 Anatomy & Physiology Introduction Chapter 1.2 Anatomy Terminology & organ systems Quadrants The abdominopelvic cavity is divided into 4 quadrants or 9 regions 4 quadrants: right upper, right lower, left upper & right lower Planes & Sections A plane is an imaginary flat surface that passes through the body or its organs Sagittal plane divides the body into left & right parts Midsagittal is when its parts are divided equally (only 1) parasagittal is when its parts are divided unequally (multiple) Frontal/coronal plane divides into anterior/ ventral & posterior/dorsal parts Transverse/ horizontal plane divides into superior & inferior parts Sagittal Coronal Transverse These are sections which are cut or slice taken to view the interal anatomy Chapter 1 Anatomy & Physiology Introduction Chapter 1.2 Anatomy Terminology & organ systems Hair, nails, skin, and Bones, bone marrow, cutaneous glands cartilage and ligaments Protection, Movement, support, thermoregulation, protection of internal vitamin D synthesis, viscera, electrolyte and cutaneous skin secretion acid-base balance, blood formation Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles and Brain, spinal cord, nerves tendons and ganglia Movement, stability, Rapid internal heat production, control communication, of body openings, coordination, motor communication control, and sensation Chapter 1 Anatomy & Physiology Introduction Chapter 1.2 Anatomy Terminology & organ systems Pineal gland, pituitary Heart and blood vessels gland, thyroid gland, (arteries, veins, parathyroid glands, capillaries, and the adrenal glands, thymus, great vessels such as pancreas, ovaries and aorta and venal cavae testes Slow internal chemical Fluid, electrolytes and communication, hormone acid-base balance. production Distribution of oxygen, wastes, nutrients, hormones, heat, immune cells and antibodies Lymphatic vessels, Nose, pharynx, larynx, trunks, and ducts, trachea, bronchi, alveoli, lymph nodes, thymus, and lungs spleen, Peyer’s patches and tonsils Defection of pathogens, Acid-base balance, production of immune cells; speech, absorption of defense against disease and oxygen and discharge of recovery of excess tissue carbon dioxide fluid Chapter 1 Anatomy & Physiology Introduction Chapter 1.2 Anatomy Terminology & organ systems Kidneys, ureters, Teeth, tongue, salivary urinary bladder and glands, pharynx, urethra esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas Nutrient breakdown and Elimination of wastes, absorption, and defecation stimulation of red blood formation, regulation of blood volume and pressure, control of fluid, acid-base and electrolyte balance, detoxification and micturition Testes, vas deferens, Ovaries, uterine/fallopian epididymides, spermatic tubes, uterus, vagina and ducts, seminal vesicles, mammary glands bulbourethral glands, prostate gland, scrotum, and penis Secretion of sex hormones, Secretion of sex hormones, production and delivery of production of eggs, site of sperm fertilization and fetal development, fetal nourishment, birth, and lactation Chapter 2 Anatomy & Physiology Skeletal System Section 2.1: Osseous Tissue Histology & Physiology Histology Shapes of Bones: Several shapes including long, flat, short & irregular Compact v Spongy Bone: Compact bone is made up of superficial solid and dense layers Spongy bone is deep loosely organized sponge like Osteon (baic organizational & functional unit of osseous tissue) Compact Bones: numerous, densely-packed osteons Spongy Bones: osteons are scattered throughout the trabeculae & spicules Three types of lamelle Concentric lamellae which surrounds the central canal (houses blood vessels and nerves Interstitial lamellae located between each osteons Circumferentials lamelle surrounds the circumference of the bone Osteocytes (mature bone cells) are inside lacunae (small holes inside bone) Canaliculi are tunnels that allow osteocytes to communicate with each other and the rest of the body These two things helps maintain homeostatsis of the osseous tissue Osteoblast are building cells that produce collagen fibers during bone transformation Osteoclast are bone dissolving/ crushing cells Historical Organization of Lone bones: Diaphysis is the lone central shaft of the bone that houses the medullary cavity medullary cavity contains yellow bone marrow (fatty tissue) in a adult and is lined with a thin layer of eputhelium (endosteum) which also lines spongy bones and canals Epiphysis is the endpiece of the bone Contains spongy bone with red bone marrow Epiphseal line is where the 2 bones pieces fuse together Periosteum: superficial thin layer of dense connective tissue that encases living bone tissue Articular cartilage cushions the lone bones whenever they meet with synovial joints which move easily because of synovial fluid Order of Layers of long bones Superficial layer anywhere around the long bone is covered in periosteum only. Superficial layer found on the epiphyses only are covered with articular cartilage. Intermediate layer of compact bone in between. Deep layer if located in the epiphyses contains spongy bone with its spicules & trabeculae are lined with endosteum. Deep layer if located in the diaphysis contains the medullary cavity is lined with endosteum as well, from here the endosteum extends to the centeral canals & nutrient foramina. Chapter 2 Anatomy & Physiology Skeletal System Section 2.1: Osseous Tissue Histology & Physiology Histology Histological Organization of Flat Bone Found in skull, sternum, scapula, hips & rib bones lack a medullary cavity Structured with multiple layers Deep layer of spongy bone is referred as dipole Order of layers Outer superficial layer lined with periosteum Intermediate layer of compact bone Deep spongy bone (trabeculae) lined with endosteum Intermediate layer of compact bone Inner superficial layer lined with periosteum Osseous plays a critical role in calcium homestasis Bone tissue is broken down adn restructured in order to better withstand stress like weight of various parts of the body'strength of the muscles attached to each bone Bone Maintenance & Remodeling: Bone grows stronger to better withstand regular encountered forces Architecture determined by stress placed on bone Calcium Homeostasis: Contains 3 hormones that control the regulation of free calcium Parathyroid hormone & Calcitriol encourages bone resorpation PTH is released from the papathyroid glands while calcitriol is screted by kidneys Calcitonin Promotes bone desposition of mineral components of bone, whcih lowers blood calcium levels Found in thyroid gland and released by papafollicular cells High blood calcium = release of calcitonin Low blood calcium = release of PTH or calcitriol Chapter 2 Anatomy & Physiology Skeletal System Section 2.2: Skeletal System Overview Axial Skeleton: cranial, facial, vertebral column, byoid, auditory ossicles, sternum & rib bones Appendicular Skeleton: upper limbs, lower limps, pectoral girdle(bones at shoulder joint), pelvic girlde (bones forming pelvis & hip joint Chapter 2 Anatomy & Physiology Skeletal System Section 2.4: Remainder of Axial Skeleton Vertebral Column Contains 32-34 vertebrae which is divided into unfused vertebrae or fused vertebrae Intervertebral foramina is the space between the vertebrae Column has 4 curvatures Concave cervical & lumber curvatures Help our ability to walk upright COnvex thoracic & sacral curvatures' primary curvatures because we had them since birth The 24 unfused vertebrae contain 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, & 5 lumber while 8-10 consists of 5 sacral & 3-5 coccyx vertebrae 9 common features of typical vertebra A pointy posterior spinous process Two flat lateral transverse processes A central hole called the vertebral foramen, A big anterior vertebral body two short pillar-like extensions (pedicles) two plate-like extensions called the laminae Two superior articular processes with facets that articulate with the vertebra above. These are round projections (process) containing a joint (facets) located superiorly on the laminae. These superior & inferior processes restrict twisting of the vertebral column, to prevent damage to the spinal cordTwo inferior articular processes with facets that articulate with the vertebra below. These are round projections (process) containing a joint (facets) located inferiorly on the laminae or spinous processIn between each vertebral body is a fibrocartilage pad called an intervertebral disc that absorbs shock as the vertebral column moves. When it ruptures it is called a herniated disc, which is extremely painful. 7 Cervical Vertebrae (C1-C7) located in nape of the neck Conains tranverse foramina which are holes in the transverse process that permits vertebral artery & veins Often split & have a smaller vertebral body The first 2 cervical vertebrae are named differently because of unique features Atlas Vertebra (C1) Lateral masses which are round sturctures that contain a layer of superior articular facets They form the atlanto-occipiyal joint enables nodding of the head Containes anterior tubercle, posterior tubercle, anterior arches and posterior arches Axis Vertebrae (C2) Dens (odontoid process) which is a superior round projection on its vertebral body Dens articulates with the atlas anterior tubercule forming atlantoaxial joint allpws head rotation Chapter 2 Anatomy & Physiology Skeletal System Section 2.4: Remainder of Axial Skeleton Vertebral Column 12 Thoracic Vertebrae (T1-T12) Their spinous processes are thin and most inferiorly lack tranverse foramina Pairs of costal facets which are in addition to articular facets Superior & inferior costal facets: articulate the head of each rib Transverse costal facets articulate the tubercle All have heart-shaped vertebral body which is bigger than cervical but small than lumber 5 Lumber Vertebrae (L1-L5) large block shapped vertebral body thick, blocky, squarish, posteriorly spinous processes lack of transverse foramina & costal facets Sacrum Vertebrae (S1-S5) contain 5 fused vertebrae sacral promontory: first sacral body that projects anteriorly into the pelvic cavity & artculates L5 Forms the lumbosacral joint Alae are smooth regions that are lateral to the sacral promontory Sacral canal is posterior of promontory which the inferior bundle of spinal nerves passes form L5 Median sacral crest: fused processes in the sacrums posterior side Anterior & Posterior sacral foramina: allows spinal nerves to pass and flak both sides of sacral bodies Auricular surfaces: lateral surfaces of sacrum vertebram and articulate the sacroiliac (hip) joints Coccyx Vertebrae (Co1-Co5) contain 3-5 small fused vertebrae Known as tail bones Provides attachment point to muscles & ligaments of the pelvic floor Very sensitive Chapter 2 Anatomy & Physiology Skeletal System Section 2.4: Remainder of Axial Skeleton Sternum Bone Central bone of thorax Divided into 3 structures Superior manubrium Gladiolus: long middle sternal body Inferior Xiphoid process Compress during CPR Rib Bones !2 pairs of rib bones that enclose the thoracic cavity & protect vital organs Intercostal spaces are the spaces between the ribs that contains muscles, blood vessels, nerves & lymphatic vessels Ribs articulate with the sternum bone via costal cartilage Ribs 1-7 considered true or vertebrpsternal ribs they attach directly to the sternum bone by their own costal cartilage vertebro-vertebrae & sternal-sternum Ribs 8-10 Attach to the sternum bone via cartilage of true bones making them vertebrochondral ribs chondral-cartilage Ribs 11-12 lack attachment to sternum so they called floating ribs or vertebral rubs costal margin is the medial border of the costal cartilage Ribs superior & inferior facets are found on the rib's posterior head The neck contains a tubercule that articulates with the transverse processes with costal facets Shaft is the main anterior portion in which the ribs curve at an angle Costal groove allows blood vessels and nerves to travel Chapter 2 Anatomy & Physiology Skeletal System Section 2.4: Remainder of Axial Skeleton Hyoid Bone U shaped bone located in the superior neck doesnt articulate any skull or any bones so it is a floating bone Held in place by muscles & ligaments Helps form part of the larynx (vocie box) Serves as attachent site for muscles of the tongue and helps with swallowing Auditory Ossicles Grouple of tiny bones forund in temporal bones contribute special sense of hearing 3 pairs of each bone malleus incus stapes