Anatomy and Physiology PDF

INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY&PHYSIOLOGY By Mr. KABANGASHESHE.  Today`s quote “ Men are NOT prisoners of fate, but only prisoners of their own MINDS” Franklin D Roosevelt 32nd USA President  NOMENCLATURE/TERMINOLOGIES Biology; is the science which deals with the study of all livi...

INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY&PHYSIOLOGY By Mr. KABANGASHESHE.  Today`s quote “ Men are NOT prisoners of fate, but only prisoners of their own MINDS” Franklin D Roosevelt 32nd USA President  NOMENCLATURE/TERMINOLOGIES Biology; is the science which deals with the study of all living things.  Anatomy: ANA—apart, TOMY--- to cut; From the Greek word anatome: - Ana = “upon, on, apart” - Tome = “ cut, dissect” it is a branch of biology& medicine which describe the structures of the body and how they relate to each other. Andreas Vasalius: Born Belgium 1514-1564 Considered Father of Modern Human Anatomy “De humani corporis fabrica libri septem” PUBLISHED: 1543 Considered one of most influential book on Human Anatomy Physiology: French physiologist Jean Fernel 1497-1558 First introduced the term physiology from ancient Greek meaning “study of nature, origins” is the branch of biology which deal with the study of the functions of living organisms. Claude Benard: Born France; 1813-1878 Considered Father of Modern Experimental Physiology....  The Anatomical Position The subject stands upright with feet together and toes pointing forward, hands by the side with the fingers straight and together and the thumb at 90° to the other fingers. The eyes are focused at a distant object and mouth closed with a neutral facial expression The infra-orbital margin is in the same horizontal plane as the external acou meatus 1/29/2025 8  Anatomical Position; This is when the body is standing upright with feet together, hands by the side and face looking forward. The mouth is closed and the facial expression is neutral, eyes are open and focused on something in the distance. The palms of the hands face forward with fingers straight and together, the toes point forward. 1/29/2025 10  Anatomical Planes Three major groups of planes pass through the body in the anatomical position: 1. Coronal planes are oriented vertically and divide the body into anterior and posterior parts 2. Sagittal planes also are oriented vertically, but are at right angles to the coronal planes and divide the body into right and left parts - The plane that passes through the centre of the body dividing it into equal right and left halves is termed the median sagittal plane 3. Transverse, horizontal, or axial planes divide the body into superior 1/29/2025 and inferior parts 11  Anatomical Planes 1/29/2025 12  Anatomical Planes 1/29/2025 13  Directional terms Directional terms are used to precisely locate one part of the body relative to another and to reduce length of explanations 1/29/2025 14  Directional Terms 1. Anterior (ventral) 7. Superficial and Deep and posterior (dorsal) 8. 2. Medial and lateral Ipsilateral/Contralateral 3. Superior and inferior 9. Bilateral 4. Proximal and distal 10. Intermediate 5. Cranial and caudal 11. Central/peripheral 6. Rostral 12. Internal/External 1/29/2025 15 Anterior/Posterior Medial/Lateral Anterior (or ventral) and Medial and lateral describe posterior (or dorsal) the position of structures describe the position of relative to the median structures relative to the sagittal plane and the sides 'front' and 'back' of the of the body body respectively For example, the thumb is - For example, the nose is an lateral to the little finger anterior (ventral) structure The nose is in the median whereas the vertebral sagittal plane and is medial column is a posterior to the eyes, which are in (dorsal) structure turn medial to the ears - Also, the nose is anterior to the ears and the vertebral column is posterior to the sternum 1/29/2025 16  Directional Terms 1/29/2025 17 Proximal/Distal Superior/Inferior Used with reference to being closer Describe structures in or farther from a structure's origin, reference to the vertical axis particularly in the limbs of the body For example, the hand is distal to For example, the head is the elbow joint superior to the shoulders The glenohumeral joint (shoulder and the knee joint is inferior joint) is proximal to the elbow joint to the hip joint These terms are also used to describe the relative positions of branches along the course of linear structures, such as airways, vessels, and nerves For example, distal branches occur farther away towards the ends of the system whereas proximal branches occur closer and towards the origin of the system 1/29/2025 18 Cranial/Caudal, Rostral Superficial/Deep Cranial (towards the head) Two other terms used to and caudal (towards the describe the position of tail) are sometimes used structures in the body are instead of superior and superficial and deep inferior respectively These terms are used to Rostral: is used, describe the relative particularly in the head positions of two - Describes the position of structures with respect to a structure with reference the surface of the body to the nose For example, the sternum - For example, the forebrain is superficial to the heart is rostral to the hindbrain and the stomach is deep to the abdominal wall 1/29/2025 19  Ipsilateral/Contralateral Internal/External Ipsilateral- refers to the same side of the body Contralateral- refers to the opposite side of the body Bilateral – both sides Internal and external- terms for the relative distance from the center of an organ or cavity 1/29/2025 20  Supine/Prone Position Supine position: this refers to the position of the body lying on its back Prone position: this of the body lying face downwards 1/29/2025 21  Surfaces of the Hand/Foot Hand Foot Palmar surface- Plantar surface- the anterior aspect of inferior surface of the the hand foot Dorsal surface- Dorsal surface- the posterior aspect of superior aspect of the the hand foot 1/29/2025 22  Terms of Movement 1. Flexion/Extension 2. Lateral flexion of the trunk 3. Plantar-flexion/Dorsi-flexion of the foot 4. Abduction/adduction 5. Circumduction 6. Rotation/Medial rotation/Lateral rotation 7. Pronation/Supination of the forearm 8. Protraction/Retraction 9. Eversion/Inversion of the foot 10.Opposition of the thumb 1/29/2025 23  Terms of Movement Flexion: - Simply put, to bend a joint - Is a movement that takes place in the sagittal plane that involves the approximation of two parts of the joining bones Extension: means the straightening of the joint Lateral flexion of the trunk: is a movement of the trunk in the coronal plane 1/29/2025 24 1/29/2025 25 1/29/2025 26 1/29/2025 27  Abduction: is the movement of the limb away from the midline in the coronal plane Adduction: is the movement of the limb toward the body in the coronal plane 1/29/2025 28 1/29/2025 29 1/29/2025 30  Circumduction: is the combination in the sequence of the movements of; flexion, extension, abduction and adduction accordingly 1/29/2025 31 1/29/2025 32  Rotation: refers to movement of a part of the body around its own axis Medial rotation: this is the movement that results in the anterior surface of the part facing medially Lateral rotation: is the movement that results in the anterior surface of the part facing laterally 1/29/2025 33  Pronation of the forearm: this is a medial rotation of the forearm in such a way that the palm of the hand faces posteriorly Supination of the forearm: this is the lateral rotation of the hand from its pronated position so that the palm of the hand is facing anteriorly 1/29/2025 34 1/29/2025 35  Protraction: this is to move a part of the body forwards Retraction: this to move a part of the body from its protracted position backwards 1/29/2025 36  Inversion: this is the movement of the ankle joint resulting in the sole of the foot facing medially Eversion: this is the movement of the ankle joint resulting in the sole of the foot facing in a lateral direction Inversion and eversion takes place at the subtalar joint 1/29/2025 37 1/29/2025 38  Dorsi-flexion-flexion of the entire foot superiorly Plantar-flexion- extension of the entire foot inferiorly Opposition of the thumb: - Movement involving the thumb to touch the tips of the fingers on the ipsilateral side - Very important movement which differentiates human beings from monkeys - Monkeys are unable to hold a pen and write because they can’t oppose their thumb - This movement is a highly learned fine skilled movement controlled by the neocerebellum 1/29/2025 39 1/29/2025 40 1/29/2025 41 1/29/2025 42 Are we together Level of organization/complexity of the body Today scientists recognize that all materials, including those that comprise the human body are composed of chemicals. The substances are made up tiny, invisible particles called ATOMS e.g H+ ATOMS are bound together to form larger particles called MOLECULES e.g. amino acids  Small molecules are bound together to form larger molecules known as MACROMOLRCULES e.g. proteins  CELL A Cell: Is a basic unit of structure and function of ALL ORGANISMS that can only be seen with a microscope. Cells vary in size, morphology, and functions Despite this they ALL have the same basic structure e.g. they all have ORGANELLS that carry specialized activities  These organelles are composed of aggregates of large molecules such as: 1.Proteins 2. Carbohydrates 3. Lipids 4. Nucleic acids Tissues: a group of cells with a specific function.. Organs: a complex structure made by a group of different tissues with specialized functions Organ systems: a group of organs that function closely together e.g. Kidney and Urinary bladder. Organ systems make up an ORGANISM (HUMAN BEING) Level of organization/complexity of the body Atomic level Molecular levels Organelle level Cellular level  Cont`d Tissue level Organ level Organ system level Organism  Body design The human body is a complex structure made of many parts. Major among them include: 1. Body cavities 2. Membranes 3. Organ systems  Body cavities The human body is divided into two portions 1. Axial portion Head, neck, trunk, pelvis 2. Appendicular portion Arms, legs The axial portion has two major cavities namely: Dorsal cavity and Ventral cavity  1. Dorsal cavity 1. Cranial cavity: houses the brain 2. Vertebral (spinal) canal: contains the spinal cord  Other Smaller Cavities within the Head 1. Oral cavity: contains teeth and tongue 2. Nasal cavity: contains several air-filled spaces called Sinuses 3. Orbital cavities: contains the Eyes 4. Middle ear cavities: contain the middle ear bones known as Ossicles  2. Ventral cavity 1. Thoracic cavity: houses the- Lungs, Heart, Oesophagus, Trachea & Thymus gland. 2. Abdominal cavity: contains the-Stomach, Liver, Spleen, Gallbladder, Kidneys, Intestines 3. Pelvic cavity: contains the- Urinary bladder, Internal reproductive organs  Membranes All body cavities are lined by various membranes that acts as a boundary. The major one are those found within the: a. Thoracic cavity b. Abdominopelvic cavity They include:  Cont`d 1. Pleural membranes: lines the thoracic cavity. 2. Pericardial membranes: surrounds the heart. 3. Peritoneal membrane: lines the Abdominopelvic cavity  BODY SYSTEMS Each system includes a set of interrelated organs that work together to provide specialized functions: 1. Integumentary system: skin, glands, hair, nails 2. Skeletal system: bones, cartilage, ligaments 3. Muscular system: smooth and skeletal muscles 4. Nervous system: brain, spinal cord, nerves. 5. Endocrine system: All glands that secret hormones. 6. Respiratory system: lungs, other organs and tubes. 7. Digestive system: mouth, stomach, intestines.etc  Cont`d 8. Circulatory system: heart, blood & blood vessels. 9. Lymphatic system: lymph nodes, lymph vessels, lymph fluid, spleen & thymus gland. 10. Urinary system: kidneys, urinary bladder, ureters, urethra.  Cont`d 11. Reproductive system: Male: scrotum, testes, penis, prostate gland etc Female: Ovaries, uterus, vagina, uterine tubes etc NB: in total the human Body has about 78 Organs………………..  Maintenance of life All body parts work to achieve one goal- maintaining life of the organism.  Needs of organisms Life depends upon the presence of certain environmental factors: 1. Water: required for various metabolic processes, acts as a media of transportation, needed for regulation of body ‘temp’ 2. Food: provides the body with necessary chemicals + water 3. Oxygen: makes up 1/5 of air. It is used in the process of releasing energy from foods (glycolysis, gluconeogenesis etc) 4. Heat: a form of energy & a product of metabolism. Temperature is a measure of quantity of heat present. Higher temp= rapid metabolic reactions Low temp= slow metabolic reactions 5. Pressure: An applied force. Atmospheric pressure = weight of air above us Hydrostatic pressure= force applied by a liquid Blood pressure -forces blood through vessels NB: The quantity and quality of these factors is Essential for survival of the organism  ASSIGNMENT STUDY ABOUT THE CELL…!!!