Anthropology Midterm Study Notes PDF

Anthropology Basics =================== Difference between other disciplines and anthropology is that it has the **broadest scope about human lives,** which is the entire planet throughout history. It is also more holistic Anthropology means **anthropos**/human **logos**/study Anthropology aims t...

Anthropology Basics =================== Difference between other disciplines and anthropology is that it has the **broadest scope about human lives,** which is the entire planet throughout history. It is also more holistic Anthropology means **anthropos**/human **logos**/study Anthropology aims to understand human behaviors, beliefs, and biological characteristics across different cultures and historical contexts Anthropology is subdivided into **four fields** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **All subfields** intertwine with each other History Of Evaluation ===================== Basics tenets of **biblical creationism** ========================================= - - - - - - **Uniformitarianism** is the theory that the **earth\'s features are the result of long term processes** that continues to operate today as they did in the past, this contrasts with **catastrophism** - - - **Adaptation** is a fit between the **organism and its environment** - - - - - - - **Adaptive radiation** is the evolution of multiple divergent species from a single less specialized ancestral species which can occur on islands - Darwin\'s basic tenets of **Natural Selection** - - - - - - - - **Alfred Russel Wallace** wrote on the tendency of v**arieties to depart indefinitely** from the original type **Neanderthal 1 cranium** was the f**irst human fossil to be recognized** and was found in 1856, it supported the idea that humans evolved Processes Of Evolution ====================== **Evolution** is a change in the **genetic structure** of a population from one generation to the next Adaptation is a fit between the **organism and its environment** **Adaptive radiation** is the evolution of **multiple divergent species** from a single less **specialized ancestral species** **Niche** is the role of a **species in its environment** - Natural selection's explanation of the **giraffe's long neck** is that there was a variety in long necks between the giraffes and natural selection favored longer necks, the favored characteristic later gets passed onto the next generation in more proportion then short necks and then over time, through the generations there\'s a general increase towards longer necked giraffes. Evolutionary processes Selection - - - - - Artificial and natural selection **do different things**, the food we eat is a product of artificial intelligence - - - - - Women don\'t fight and men don\'t choose us because **sperm is cheap**, women contribute to more than just a single cell **Sexual selection** in humans is the selection based on **cultural factors** (race, religion) which can lead to **non random mating** Charles ii of Spain was the example of the effects of inbreds, the Habsburgs loved to breed with one another and did it often Mutation - Sickle cell anemia is the result of a **point mutation**, which occurs in a **single base in a codon** Genetic drift - - - - - - - - - - - - - Gene flow - Timescale Of Evolution ====================== **Microevolution** is the changes in **allele frequencies** within breeding population, within species, this can occur in an observable timeframe **Macroevolution** is the changes resulting in the emergence of new species, the **similarities and differences between species** and their phylogenetic relationships with other taxa. Best example is horses, they used to be the size of a dog and herbivores, but then over time they got bigger Darwin didn't have this Early Genetic Ideas =================== **Gregor Mendel** is the f**ather of genetics** and was a monk who worked in Czechia. People only understood the importance of his learning after his time, Inherited the idea of **blending or particulate inheritance**. What happens if u mate a plant that consistently produces smooth peas with one that consistently produces wrinkled peas - - Results that support particulate inheritance is correct because its indicated that each trait is controlled by 2 factors per individual What Mendel called factors are actually genes **Gene** is the Segment of DNA that contains protein-coding information and various regulatory (e.g., promoter) and noncoding (e.g., introns) regions. **Alleles** are the alternate forms of a gene (e.g.Smooth vs wrinkled) **Homozygous** is the possessing two of the same allele (SS, ss) **Heterozygous** is possessing two different alleles (Ss) **Evolution** is a change in the allele frequencies in a population over time, a change in the frequency of the different forms of a gene **Dominant allele** is the allele that is expressed in a heterozygote (S) **Recessive allele** is the allele that is not expressed in a heterozygote (s) **Genotype** is the genetic makeup of an individual **Phenotype** is the observable or detectable physical characteristics of an organism The phenotype is the wrinkled pea and its genotype would be ss but if the phenotype is a smooth pea then the genotype is SS or Ss Why do some features appear to blend in offspring?(i.e., skin color) **Monogenic** is a characteristic coded for by **only one gene** (i.e., one set of alleles) - **Polygenic** is a characteristic coded for by **more than one gene** - Some **alleles are codominant**, which can also produce the **appearance of blending** - DNA And Protein Synthesis ========================= **James Watson** and **Francis Crick** and they described the **structure of DNA** molecule in 1953. **Rosalind Franklin** took an X ray diffraction of wet DNA which told them that DNA is a double helix and the bogle prize was not given to her because she died of cancer before that. She took the imagine but didn't exactly understand what it meant **Structure of DNA** Nitrogenous Bases - - - - A always bonds with T C always bonds with G **Nucleus is the "control center"** of the cell, it contains nuclear DNA, which you get from both parents (50% from mother, 50% from father) **Ribosomes** are **protein** manufacturing center of the cell **Mitochondrion** is the **energy producing part** of the cell which contains mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which you get only from your mother **Karyotype** is an individual\'s complete set of chromosomes. We in total have **23** pairs of chromosomes, **22** pairs are autosomes and **1** pair are the sex chromosomes The chromosomes get translated into a thing the body needs through **Protein Synthesis**, a sequence of base pairs is copied into a molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA) **Transcription** transfers DNA sequence out of the nucleus in Protein Synthesis and **Translation** builds a protein **Ribonucleic Acid** (RNA) is a molecule **like** DNA except: - - - **Codon** is a set of three bases in mRNA that codes for **a particular amino acid** **Anticodon** is a corresponding set of **three bases on the transfer RNA** (tRNA) molecule **The Genetic Code** can be used to translate a mRNA strand into the sequence of amino acids it encodes Factors That Shape Modern Human Variation ========================================= What factors shape human variation? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Is There A Scientifically Valid Race Concept ============================================ **The race model** represents one idea about how human variability is patterned, the variation exists in distinct groupings or clumps that we can identify and name. As with any model, it makes certain assumptions and predictions, which can be tested **Common assumptions** of the race model are that in the context of human dispersal, groups of humans arrived in particular locations, and then stayed in those places, **only breeding locally**, and evolving based on local conditions, through local adaptation and isolation from other groups they became more similar to one another, and accumulated differences from other groups, producing clusters The race model **predicts** that members of any particular cluster should have more in common with one another than with the members of another cluster, they should vary in ways that are concordant This prediction can be tested through the use of **genetics** in order to look at patterns of variability. If the race model is correct there should be **high between group variability, and low within group variability**, this was first studied by **Lewontin in 1972** In 1972, Richard Lewontin found that most genetic differences (about 85%) among humans exist **within the same population**, not between different groups or races. This showed that the concept of \"race\" has little basis in biology, as people from different races are not as genetically distinct as once thought. which clusters you are going to recognize are going to **depend on which source of variation you choose**, since most variation is **non-concordant**, different types of variations are going to produce **different clusters**. This explains why there has never been any scientific agreement on a single classification scheme that can account for all humans, in spite of hundreds of years of trying. The attempts made to classify humans are **all wrong!** - - - - - Go Ape Film =========== The nostrils of south african monkeys noses **open to the side** meanwhile other types of primates are **straight down** **Grooming** is when a primate combs through another primate's fur looking for parasites Humans are **94%** similar to chimpanzees genetically A benefit to having a large group size in nonhuman primates is that they are able to **protect resources better** and they have **better defense against predators** Two similarities that the chimpanzees in this documentary share with humans are that they are **meat eaters and they have close family bonds** One challenge to primate conservation that is discussed in the documentary is **de-habitation and deforestation** Approx. **50%** of primate species are endangered **Education** is the most important strategy for primate conservation Features Of Primates ==================== - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Overview of Living Non Human Primates ===================================== Primates Haplorrhini Strepsirrhini arsiers Anthro oidea 3 3 6 Lemurs, Platyrrhini Ca arrhini I 2 Cercopithecoidea Hominoidea Cercopithecidae Hylobatidae Pon idae Hominidae Panamerican Afroeurasian Gibbons, Orangs Humans Strepsirrhini - - - - - - - - - - - Haplorhine - Tarsiers - Platyrrhine - - - Catarrhines - - - - - - Hominoideas - - - - - Non Human Primate Models For Human Behavior =========================================== Baboons as models - **Homologies** are similarities between organisms based on a descent from a common ancestor such as a bat wing and a human arm **Analogies** are similarities between organisms based strictly on common function with no assumed common evolutionary descent. The similarities between baboons and apes are because they lived in same environments **Humans are equally closely related to chimps and bonobos**, they share features that were likely present in our ancestors. ============================================================================================================================ In the wild chimpanzees don\'t make tools, because **it\'s a learned and cultural behavior.** Ex. a chimp child watches mother open a nut with a rock. They are taught to take one rock and hit with another inorder to create tools. An example of a bonobo doing this is **Kanzi.** ===================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================== **Kanzi** the bonobo could communicate with **lexigrams**, the bonobo would combine other words in order to say words they don\'t know (water + bird = swan). **Washoe** was the first non-human primate to learn **sign language**. They can\'t learn language as quickly and they cant speak English because it\'s physically impossible for them to. ======================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================= Chimps And Bonobo Differences ============================= - Chimps are highly territorial with male dominated groups. They also have common aggressive interactions and live in less rich places have to fight and defend resources ======================================================================================================================================================================= - Bonobos live in environments that are more rich with fruits. They are less aggressive and they have female centered egalitarian groups which means they prioritize equality and focus on equal rights for their women. When Bonobos have sex it isn\'t just about reproduction, sex is also a way to solve problems. ==================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================== Both chimpanzees and bonobos are models for ancestral human behavior, we have characteristics of both. ====================================================================================================== Dating Methods ============== **Relative dating** provides a relative ordering of material or sites **Absolute dating** provides an actual chronological age, usually with an error range for an object or a part of a site **Stratigraphy** is the study of the sequential layering of deposits **Law of superposition** meaning that In a stratigraphic sequence, the lower layers were deposited before the upper layers Overtime layers can be twisted and bent in terms of geology. The deeper in layer something is, the older it is and vice, we don't know how old the difference is but we know that its relatively older **Physical correlation** is the linking of geological layers based on their physical characteristics The **law of faunal succession** is strata that contain fossils of the same animals are the same age. It makes use of index fossils which are fossil remains of known age, this should be broadly distributed with species of short duration. The law is used in Biostratigraphy (faunal dating) **Cultural dating** is the relative dating method that arranges human made artifacts in a time frame from oldest to youngest based on material production, technique, style and other features **Willard F. Libby** is the father of the "radiocarbon revolution" and winner of the Nobel Prize in 1960  The **atom** is made of protons (+), the neutron, electrons and a nucleus (center) **Isotopes** are atoms that have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons **Carbon** exists in nature in 3 isotopes. 12c stable,13c stable,14c unstable. There\'s a fairly constant supply of carbon 14 into the world. So we can assume that the amount of carbon 14 is constant because it\'s always coming in. Everything organic that you eat will have Carbon in it except for salt. When you die there will be a decrease in Carbon 14 and will produce Nitrogen 14, which is its daughter product **Half life** is the time period in which one half the amount of a radioactive Isotope is chemically converted to a daughter product. **Carbon 14 decays into nitrogen 14** with a half life of **5730** Radiometric dating techniques - - - **Great rift valley** as a volcanic active area a lot of sites can be dated with **K-Ar dating** Eruption of mount Vesuvius and destruction of Pompeii is an example of Argon argon dating which was 79 AD **Agrologists never do it on the first date** meaning archeologists need to go through multiple tests and need to b confident of the date before actually putting a date on it The Stuff Of Evolutionary Anthropology And Archaeology ====================================================== **Artifacts** are objects or materials made or modified for use by hominins **Features** are the product of human activity that can\'t be removed from the archaeological record as a single discrete entity. Ex. remains of things that humans eat (shell midden) **Ecofacts** are natural materials that give environmental information about a site which is not modified by humans. Ex. Antlers **Info that osteologists can get from a skeleton** - - - - - Excavation Techniques And Principles ==================================== **Archaeological** site is the location of past human activity **Site survey** is the process of discovering the location of archeological sites its also a way of collecting information for landscape archaeology. Archeologists rely on more than just what is dug up, they rely on the context as well. **Context** is the spatial and temporal associations of artifacts and features in an archaeological site. Its where an object is found and with what can explain a lot Excavation Is a **destructive process**, what it destroys is context not the items excavated Excavation strategies - - - - **In situ** is the original place that an artifact was found After all the info is collected its all put into a computer and it\'s reconstructed there. The central goal is to persevere as much information as possible Human Features ============== Some uniquely human features - - - - - - - These changes happened over time in a mosaic fashion Historical context ================== Two possible scenarios for human evolution - - **Charles dawson** was the discoverer of **Piltdown I in 1908** and he went to **Sir arthur smith Woodward** who was an english fish paleontologist curator of the british natural history museum, and **Pierre Teilhard De Chardin** who was a French priest and paleontologist. They found a second specimen when going back and they were assumed to be from the same specimen because it was found in the same place. The cranium was clearly human but the jaw was suggestive of ape addinities so it seemed like a variation of both. This was called Eoanthropus Dawsoni. It was false! **Fluorine dating** tells u if bones have been in the ground the same length of time and is a relative dating technique This was done to embarrass the theory of evolution. They found out that the fossils had flaws and were tampered with, the teeth were filed down and it was an actual jaw of an ape. There were many theories about who done it, Dawson being one of them because he\'s been involved in many other Hoaxes and **Martin Hinton** because a case of bone were found that were stained and they belonged to him and he had motive because he was turned down from a job at the museum 3 Clusters Of Early Hominins And Bipedalism =========================================== **Himini** is the group that includes all those species more closely related to homo sapiens than to any living great apes. Members of hominini are called **hominins** 3 clusters of early hominins - **Ardipithecus ramidus** - - - - - - - **Australopithecus afarensis** - - - - **Taphonomy** is the study of all the events from an organism\'s death to its discovery as a fossil. The damage to Lucy\'s skeleton may have been may have a taphonomic origin rather than a clinical origin - - - The fossil material suggests that **bipedalism** came first, meaning humans began walking on their **hindlimbs before brain expansion** - **Paranthropus Boisei** - - - - -