Physical Anthropology PDF

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY  WHAT DO ANTHROPOLOGISTS STUDY?  W hat do anthr opol o gi st s study?  A nthropol og y i s a di s c i pl i ne where the hum ani ti es , s oc i al s c i enc es , and nat ural s c i enc es c om bi ne to prov i de a pi c t ure of hum an l i f e. From t he nat ural s c i e...

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY  WHAT DO ANTHROPOLOGISTS STUDY?  W hat do anthr opol o gi st s study?  A nthropol og y i s a di s c i pl i ne where the hum ani ti es , s oc i al s c i enc es , and nat ural s c i enc es c om bi ne to prov i de a pi c t ure of hum an l i f e. From t he nat ural s c i enc es c om e di s c ov eri es about the ori gi n and ev ol uti on of our s pec i es ( H omo s api ens ), how hum an phys i c a l trai ts v ary am ong groups , and how our ev ol ut i onar y pas t has i nfl uenc ed our s oc i al organi zati o n and c ul ture today. From t he s oc i al s c i enc es c om es an unders tan di n g of t he s t ruc t ure and f unc t i on of hum an s oc i al and c ul tural rel ati ons , i ns ti tuti ons , and s oc i al c onfl i c ts. T he hum ani t i es hel p us dec ode how eac h c ul ture m ak es s ens e of the worl d through t hei r art , m us i c , and text s.  H ow i s anthropol og y di fferent from the other two s oc i al s c i enc e di s c i pl i nes you’ re s tudyi n g? A s you m ay i m agi ne from the defi ni ti on, there are l ot s of pot ent i al ov erl aps. For exam pl e, s oc i ol og y al s o exam i nes how groups of peopl e behav e and t he s oc i al s truc tures t hey c reat e. In t hat s ens e, i t i s v ery s i m i l ar t o a branc h of anthropol o g y c al l ed s oc i al anthropol og y. S oc i al anthropol og y di ff ers f rom s oc i ol og y m ai nl y i n that i t em phas i zes c om pari s ons ac ros s c ul t ures rat her t han foc us i ng on j us t one.  For exam pl e, a s oc i ol ogi s t m i ght s t udy weddi ng ri t ual s i n a s oc i et y t o unders t and how gender and power rel ati ons i nterac t to defi ne fem al e rol es i n t hat s oc i et y. Meanwh i l e , a s oc i al anthropol og i s t m i ght c om pare weddi ng c erem oni es ac ros s m any c ul tures to unders tand how ri tual s s hared wi th the c om m uni t y are us ed by peopl e ev eryw he re to c reat e s t ronger f am i l y bonds.  T he di s c i pl i ne of anthropol og y c an be di v i ded i nto two m ai n res earc h f i el ds : physic al and social/cul tur al.  DEFINITION  Physical Anthropology examines human beings as biological organisms and tries to differentiate them from other species.  Some physical anthropologists:  Trace the origins of the human species  study biological similarities and differences among human beings today.  PRIMATES AND HUMANS  Humans are a form of primate (along with chimpanzees, baboons and gorillas)  Our DNA is only 1-2% different from other primates.  Physical anthropologists study other primates to help understand human evolution.  ACTIVIT Y: BRAINSTORM With a partner, come up with a list of physical traits that make humans unique.  SIMILARITIES BETWEEN HUMANS AND OTHER PRIMATES  Opposable thumbs  Large brains, capacity to learn and think  Long period of childhood dependence  Social creatures  Capacity for aggression  Defence of territory  DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HUMANS AND OTHER PRIMATES  Bipedalism–walking upright over long distances  Use of complex language  Ability to communicate complex/abstract ideas  HUMAN HISTORY  Between 6 and 7 million years ago, humans and chimpanzees shared a common ancestor in east Africa. the climate began to change and much of east Africa became drier. Forests became less dense and there was more grassland between trees.  Bipedalism is also much more efficient than moving on all four limbs, meaning less food energy is needed to simply move around.  H. habilis, who appeared about 2.5 million years ago. H. habilis was small and probably hairy, and the first to use tools!  1.9 million years ago, humanity took a big step in its evolution with the arrival of Homo erectus. This species was the first to make fire and used it to cook meat. Cooking meat made it easier to digest, which allowed the body to divert energy from digesting to powering the brain.  HUMAN HISTORY  Approximat el y 1 million years ago, a new species of human named Homo heidelbergensis evolved in Africa. They were bigger and more muscular than H. erectus and had a brain nearly as large as modern humans. In many ways, they looked very much like people today. They made relatively sophisticated stone tools and weapons and cooked using fire.  W e are all descendants of H. heidelbergensis. By about 600 000 years ago, H. heidelbergensis had migrated out of Africa into Europe and throughout Asia. They survived until about 200 000 years ago.  About 400 000 years ago, the population of H. heidelber gensis in Europe was evolving into a new species called H. neandert hal ensis (Neanderthals). This was in response to the much colder conditions present in Europe as ice ages came and went. Neanderthals were more muscular and had thicker bones than H. heidelbergensis. Having relatively thick and heavy bodies helped insulate Neanderthals from the freezing conditions. Neanderthals went extinct about 20 000 to 30 000 years ago, perhaps because of the arrival of modern humans ( Homo sapiens ) in Europe.  MODERN HUMANS  About 200 000 years ago modern humans ( Homo sapiens) evolved in Africa. W e were less muscular and had slightly larger brains than Neanderthals and H. heidelbergensis. W e also developed a more sophisticated ability to speak due to changes in our vocal cords and tongue. Having a larger brain and a greater ability to communicate vocally gave us the ability to develop a complex culture. From caves in South Africa we have evidence that we were also the first human species to create art.  Homo sapiens spread out from Africa about 100 000 years ago into Asia and southern Europe, where we overlapped with Neanderthals and descendants of H. heidelbergensis. Modern humans could make better tools and weapons and so were better competitors for resources. This may have contributed to the extinction of the earlier species of humans. However, these earlier forms are still with us since geneticists recently proved that we all carry a tiny percentage of Neanderthal DNA in our genes.  HOW DID HUMANS BECOME HUMAN? Three hypotheses:  Aggressive traits led early humans to develop tools. Hunting in groups required language. These needs led to rapid growth of the human brain.  Social success drove the need for intelligence – a good memory, the ability to recognize and learn from others, and to act on that knowledge.  Learning to share may have been the most impor tant step in human development  CHARLES DARWIN  Published On the Origin of Species (1859) where he proposed his theory of evolution.  Determined that all species change over time due to process he called natural selection.  Based on this process he concluded that human beings and apes must have descended from one ancestor.  Do not copy this slide Breeders select dogs to mate that have features they hope the offspring will inherit. This is called selective/ar tificial breeding. There are over 400 different breeds of dogs. It takes generations to get a new breed.  How does Selective Breeding work? Do not copy this slide  SELECTIVE BREEDING ACTIVIT Y You are a dog breeder. You have been contacted by a scientist who wants dogs that could be bred for specific purposes. Choose 2 dogs to selectively breed for the following scenarios. Do not copy this slide  Scenario 1: A Selective Breeding Activity guard dog to be used to scare away a polar bear? Scenario 2: The dogs will be used to see and retrieve ducks from lakes so the birds can be tagged and re-released. The birds scare easily and must be retrieved unharmed and with a minimum amount of stress. Scenario 3: A pet to live in a small apartment in Do not copy Toronto. this slide  NATURAL SELECTION  In general, species choose to mate with those who have features they hope their offspring will inherit. However, natural selection largely refers to external factors that determine who/what thrives or dies out.  Selective Pressure – Any cause (generally environmental) that reduces or increases the reproductive success of a por tion of the population.  Eg/ In a forest fire those with wings can fly away while other species will die.  Amplification – The increase in the prevalence of a trait that increases reproductive success  SELECTIVE PRESSURE CLIMATE CHANGE  The sex of most tur tles, alligators, and crocodiles is determined after fer tilization.  The temperature of the developing eggs is what decides whether the offspring will be male or female.  Researchers have also noted that the warmer the sand, the higher the ratio of female tur tles.  Using the words “Selective Pressure” and “Amplification” explain why the giraffes on the right are more likely to survive.  NATURAL SELECTION VIDEO CLIP  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vnktXHBvE8s  3 minutes  HUMAN FAMILY TREE  Smithsonian Institute  http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human -family-tree  OTHER HUMANS?  Homo flores ie ns is – “The Hobbit ”  I n 2 0 0 3 , a rc ha eologis t s exc ava t ing t his la rge c ave on t he is la nd of Flores in I ndones ia ma de a rema rk a ble dis c over y.  M odel of w ha t t he fa c e of Homo flores ie ns is might have looked like  They unea r t hed a s keleton da ted to a bout 13 0 0 0 yea rs a go t ha t a p p ea red to be of a new s p ec ies of huma n.  S kull a nd limb bones of t he 13 0 0 0 - yea r- old s keleton  Here is a n a r t is t ’ s rec ons t ruc t io n of w ha t t he “Hobbit ” found in t he c ave might have looked like.  They nic k na me d t his new t y p e of huma n t he “Hobbit ” ( a f ter t he c ha ra c ters c rea ted by a ut hor J. R. R. Tolk ien) bec a us e it wa s s o s hor t ( a bout 1.1 m in height ) a nd ha d rela t ively big feet.  They forma lly na med t he new s p ec ies Homo flores ie ns is , a f ter t he is la nd of Flores w here it wa s found. M odern huma ns a re t he s p ec ies Homo s a p iens , s o t his new s p ec ies is c los ely rela ted to us bec a us e we a re bot h in t he s a me genus ( Homo).  The is la nd of Flores is t hought to have been is ola ted from t he r es t o f I ndo nes ia by a w ide oc ea n c ha nnel for a t lea s t 10 0 0 0 0 yea rs.  I t is t hought t ha t H. flores ie ns i s a rrived on t he is la nd a round 10 0 0 0 0 yea rs a go, p erha p s floa t ing on ba mboo ra f t s. Like ma ny s p ec ies of ma mma ls t ha t a r e c o nfined to is la nds , H. flores ie ns is evolved to bec ome s ma ller bec a us e t her e us ua lly is n’ t a s muc h food ava ila ble. Their ma in p rey wa s a c ous in of t he elep ha nt t ha t ha d migra ted to t he is la nd nea rly a million yea rs ea rlier a nd ha d a ls o evolved to b ec o me muc h s ma ller – a bout t he s iz e of a s ma ll c ow.  A volc a nic erup t ion on t he is la nd a bout 1 2 0 0 0 yea rs a go is t hought to be r es p ons ib le for t he elimina t i o n of H. flores ie n s i s , a long w it h t heir ma in p r ey s p ec ies , t he dwa r f elep ha nt. I t wa s a f ter t his t ime t ha t modern huma ns may have migr a ted to t he is la nd by s ea c a noe.  M a p s how ing t he is la nd of Flores , p a r t of I ndones ia , w hic h lies a b o ut 1 2 0 0 k m no r t h of wes tern Aus t ra lia  I ndones ia is a la rge c ount r y ma de up of hundreds of is la nds ( s how n c irc led in red). Flores is a la rge is la nd in t he middle of t he is la nd c ha in t ha t lies no r t h o f wes ter n Aus t ra lia.  A ma z ingly, t here a re s ome indic a t io ns t ha t a s ma ll p op ula t io n o f H. flo r es ie ns is s ur v ived into modern t imes. S ome H. flores ien s i s may have lived in r emo te c aves unt il a few hundred yea rs a go bec a us e t here were rep or t s of t iny ha ir y p eo p le liv ing on Flores w hen Por t ugu es e s a ilors firs t a rrived in t he 16 0 0 s. S ome a nt hrop olog is t s even t hink t ha t s ma ll p op ula t io ns of H. flores ien s i s c ould s t ill b e a live to day in t he mos t remote p a r t s of t he is la nd. HTTP://CONTINUINGCREATION.ORG/WP - CONTENT/UPLOADS/2017/10/HUMAN - ANCENTORS.JPG  HUMAN EVOLUTION  Human evolution  Humans evolved from an ape-like ancestor about six million years ago. Paleoanthropologists know this because of discoveries of fossilized skulls and bones found in sites in Africa. Almost everything we know about the earliest stages in human evolution comes from fossilized bones in Africa, along with some associated stone tools. Hominid Evolution: On The Origin of Humans  Questions to answer: What is a human? What is a hominid? What were early humans (hominids) like? How long have humans (hominids) been around? Where and when did modern humans (Homo sapiens) originate? How have we changed? How did we come to populate the entire Earth? What is a human?  What is a hominid? Any human-like species, including us. Bipedal (walks on two legs). Intelligent (large brain, uses tools). Hominids are not the same as modern apes WHY? Modern apes like chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans are not bipedal. Modern apes do not have a large brain compared to ours. Modern apes do not make tools. However, chimpanzees are our closest relative - our DNA is 98% similar to theirs! There have been at least a dozen different species of hominids over the last five million years or so  Since the first hominid fossils and artifacts were found, we have found literally hundreds of others  Anthropologists compare the skulls, teeth, bones, and tools. Together they begin to show our family tree - how we evolved to who we are today. Notice that most species have gone extinct - there are a lot of “dead ends”.  We are still not exactly sure when the first bipedal hominids evolved, but an amazing discovery in 1974 proved that hominids were bipedal a lot earlier than previously believed. Do you remember the name? Her name was Lucy.  Lucy Discovered in Ethiopia in 1974. Dated at 3.2 million years old! 40% of her skeleton was found. Only four feet tall. Bipedal for certain. She walked upright. Her scientific name is Australopithecus afarensis, a distant ancestor to us, Homo sapiens.  An even more impressive fossil was found in 1978, but there were no bones to it at all. Huh? This discovery proved that there were bipedal hominids even earlier than Lucy. The Laetoli Footprints 3.6 million years old Even older than Lucy Clearly bipedal Also showed that these early hominids walked together  So who were the “first” hominids? We still are not sure, but we have found more fossil fragments as early as five million years ago. And when did our species - Homo sapiens - first evolve? And how did we come to dominate the earth?  It is important to remember that there were several species in the genus Homo that came before Homo sapiens. Homo habilis is the earliest fossil discovered so far (2.3 million years old) It means “handy man”. Homo habilis used very simple tools. Homo erectus was a serious toolmaker and a fine hunter. Evidence also indicates that they were the first to use fire. Fossils of several other species in the genus Homo have also been found. Homo ergaster. Homo heidelbergensis. The most famous is Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthal Man). Neanderthal Man lived in Europe. They too went extinct. Probably lived side-by-side with Homo sapiens. Possibly interbred with them.  10 Mysterious Extinct Human Species https://youtu.be/BwQWNpgdP6U?feat ure=shared And then there is…  Homo sapiens. Anatomically modern humans. Oldest fossils found so far are perhaps 195,000 years old. Found in Africa (also in Ethiopia). Does that mean we all came from Africa?  Yes! DNA analysis has proven this. We are all Africans DNA testing of thousands of humans today, using a simple saliva test kit, has created a “map” of human migration since modern humans first left Africa 80,000 years ago.  We now have an excellent “road map” of how humans evolved from Africa and migrated to populate the rest of the earth. This evidence matches the fossils and fills in the gaps.  And if we follow the path of our mitochondrial DNA back to the beginning, somewhere in Africa… We find that all humans alive today, including us, descended from a SINGLE FEMALE. Scientists have called her “Eve”  From Lucy to “Eve” Using fossils, artifacts, and now even our DNA, we are slowly getting a good picture of our own hominid evolution. Homework: Read handout – The Laws of Evolution and answer the questions on the back  Culture What is it? Where does it come from?  Think/ Pair/Share - Discussion Is culture inherited? “NATURE” Is culture based on how we adapt to our environment? “NURTURE” Do not copy this slide What do you think??  CULTURE All the learned behaviours, beliefs, attitudes, values and ideals of a particular society or population  Franz Boas (1858-1942) Boas introduced the idea of cultural relativism, which holds that cultures cannot be objectively ranked as higher or lower, or better or more correct, but that all humans see the world through the lens of their own culture, and judge it according to their own culturally acquired norms. For Boas, the object of anthropology was to understand the way in which culture conditioned people to understand and interact with the world in different ways and to do this it was necessary to gain an understanding of the language and cultural practices of the people studied.  Margaret Mead & the Nature-Nurture Debate Margaret Mead was a student of Franz Boas. Mead studied gender roles of men and women ( in New Guinea, Polynesia) Do not copy this slide  Arapesh Do not copy this slide Children were treated warmly Both men and women participated in child care Both genders grew up in trusting world No aggression Mundagumor (now Biwat) Do not copy this slide In 1929, the Australian Administration outlawed headhunting and cannibalism. A man's only chance of power and prestige was in having extensive tobacco fields and enough wives to work them Mundugumor power and abundance did not produce a peaceful, united society. Instead, it was a competitive one. Mundugumor men and women alike were violent and aggressive; woman were actively masculine, and without any of the softening and mellowing characteristics that are often attributed to that sex in other cultures. Both boys and girls were treated badly and left to fend for themselves Viewed others as enemies Grew up to be hostile and aggressive Tchambuli (now Chambri) Do not copy this slide Gender roles reversed: women were tough, men were passive and looked after the house Girls were trained in handicrafts Boys were given no training Women formed a cohesive group while boys were excluded from major ceremonies  Margaret Mead Concludes Determined that Nurture largely determines human behaviour. “Masculinity” and “Femininity” are learned In the mid 1900’s this finding was revolutionary. People assumed gender roles were defined by nature.  So is it all Nurture? Well…no The two sexes do have scientific verifiable differences between them. Men and women have different hormones (estrogen and testosterone affect the development of the brain) that affect their development differently. Most IQ tests state that there are no overall score differences between females and males. Adjusted for total brain size (men’s are bigger), a woman’s hippocampus, critical to learning and memorization, is larger than a man’s and works differently. Conversely, a man’s amygdala, associated with the experiencing of emotions and the recollection of such experiences, is bigger than a woman’s…there are other differences as well. There is much scientific evidence to suggest men and women are different psychologically, sociology as well. Brain development does not happen in a vacuum though. So the Nature/Nurture debate goes on. More here: https://stanmed.stanford.edu/2017spring/how-mens-and-womens-brains-are- different.html https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_differences_in_humans  Culture is… Culture is learned Culture is shared Culture defines nature Culture shapes how we perceive and understand the world Culture has patterns