Anthropology Reviewer PDF

lOMoARcPSD|24618218 Anthropology - Reviewer Social science course (Philippine Normal University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Kaye Tagod ([email protected]) ...

lOMoARcPSD|24618218 Anthropology - Reviewer Social science course (Philippine Normal University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Kaye Tagod ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|24618218 LET Reviewer Social Science Major Anthropology for Teachers Concept of Anthropology A. Definition of Anthropology Comes from the Greek words; anthropos (man) and logos (study). Concerns explicitly and directly with all varieties of people throughout the world and it traces human evolution and cultural development from millions of years ago to present (Ember, 1993). It looks into the attributes of a particular human population.\ B. Two Major Disciplines of Anthropology B.1 Physical Anthropology "concerns with human evolution and human variation (Paleontology or paleoanthropology) B.2 Cultural Anthropology - deals with the study of culture consists’ of three areas as follows: 1. Linguistics- focuses on historical and descriptive or structural linguistics. It looks into the emergence of language and variations of language over time. 2. Archaeology-deals with cultural history 3. Ethnology (cultural anthropology)-studies cultural variation A. Schools of Thought in Cultural Anthropology - Early Evolutionism (Edward B. Taylor and Lewis Henry Morgan) - states that most societies were believed to pass through the same series of stages, to arrive ultimately at a common end Downloaded by Kaye Tagod ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|24618218 - Historical Particularism - Franz Boas. the proponent, believed that it was premature to formulate universal law since there is a need to study the context of society in which they appeared. - Diffusionism (British, German and Austrian Anthropologists) spread the idea that most aspects of civilization had emerged in culture centers and later diffused outward. - Functionalism (Bronislaw Malinowski). It holds that all culture traits serve the needs of individuals in a society; the function of culture traits is the ability to satisfy some basic or derived need. - Structural-functionalist approach (Arthur Reginald Radcliffe-Brown) assumes that the various aspects of social behavior maintain a society's social structure- its total network of social relationships - rather than satisfying individual needs. It works in the following assumption: stability, harmony, equilibrium and evolution. - Psychological Approaches (Edward Sapir, Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead) seek to understand how psychological factors and processes may help us explain cultural practices. - Later Evolutionism (Leslie White) states that culture evolves as the amount of energy harnessed per capita per year is increased or as the efficiency of the instrumental means of putting the energy to work increased. - Structuralism- Claude Levi-Strauss sees culture as it is expressed in art, ritual, and the patterns of daily life, as a surface representation of the underlying patterns of the human mind. - Ethno science (ethnography) explains culture from the way people used to describe their activities. - Cultural Ecology seeks to understand the relationship between culture and social environments - Political economy centers on the impact of external political and economic processes, particularly as connected to colonialism and imperialism, on local events and cultures in the underdeveloped countries. - Sociobiology involves the application of biological evolutionary principles to the social behavior of animals, including humans. - Interpretive approaches consider cultures as texts to be analyzed for their meanings. - Feminist Anthropology includes women's issues in the study of culture and society. - Conflict Theory-advocates of this theory ask this question: "Who controls the scarce resources of a given society"? It assumes that society can be explained based on the following assumptions: economic determinism, dialectism and social action. B. Types of Research in Cultural Anthropology Ethnography Downloaded by Kaye Tagod ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|24618218 Non-historical Research Historical Research Cross-Cultural Research II. Human Evolution A. Beliefs about human beings Divine theory Systema Naturae by Cart Linneaus (carolus ) Jean Baptiste Lamarck- species could evolve Erasmus Darwin - inheritance of acquired characteristics Charles Lyeli-Principles of Geology B. Theory of Natural Selection proposed by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace - The theory of natural selection proposes that those organisms best adapted to a particular environment produce the most offspring overtime. C. Gregor Mendel's experiments - Mendel's research in genetics and DNA and RNA led us to understand the mechanisms by which traits may be passed from one generation to the next. D. Sources of Biological Variation 1. Genetic recombination- random assortment, segregation and crossing-over 2. Mutation - change in DNA sequence E. Factors in Human Variation Downloaded by Kaye Tagod ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|24618218 1. Genetic Drif 2. Gene Flow 3. Influence of Physical Environment 4. Influence of social and cultural environment F. Humans are a product of the interaction of biological and cultural evolution. G. Physical Variation among Humans genetic variation body build facial construction skin color height Lactase deficiency H. Problems about Human Variation 1. Racism 2. Gender Discrimination I. Diagram on Human Evolution: Biological and Cultural TIME GEOLOGIC FOSSIL RECORD ARCHEOLOGICAL MAJOR CULTURAL (YEARS AGO) EPOCH PERIODS DEVELOPMENTS 5500 (3500 Bronze Age Cities and States; B.C.) Social Inequality; Full- time Craf specialist 10,000(8.000 Neolithic Domestication of plants Downloaded by Kaye Tagod ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|24618218 B.C.) and animals; permanent villages Broad spectrum food collecting; increasing Mesolithic sedimentary communities; many kinds of microliths 14,000 Pleistocene Earliest humans in New (12,000 B.C.) World Upper Cave paintings; female figurines; many kinds of Paleolithic blades tools 40,000 Modem humans Homo sapiens 200,000 Neanderthal Homo sapiens Middle Religious beliefs(?) Earliest Homo sapiens Paleolithic burials; Moustenan (?) tools 300,000 Homo Erectus 700,000 1,500,000 Homo Habilis 1.800,000 Earliest hominids Lower Pliocene Australopithe-cus Paleolithic Hunting/scavenging; seasonal campsites; Oldowan tools Downloaded by Kaye Tagod ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|24618218 2,000,000 Diversification of Apes Sivapithecus Dryopithecus Earliest stone tools Proconsu 5,000,000 Miocene Earliest apes (?) Propliopithe-cus e.g. Aegyptopithe-cus 22,500,000 Earliest anthropoids 29,000,000 Parapithecids e.g. Apldium 32,000.000 Oligocene Ampipithecus tetonius Earliest Primates Purgaforius 38,000,000 Eocene 50,000,000 Paleocene 53,500,000 Late Cretaceous 70,000.000 Ember: 1996 - Homo erectus begun to evolve into Homo sapiens afer about 500,000 years ago. - Pro-modem Homo sapiens have been found in Africa, Asia and Europe. - The oldest fossil remains of a modem looking human have been found in South Africa. - Two theories about the origins of modem humans: Downloaded by Kaye Tagod ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|24618218 1. Single-origin theory- modem humans emerged in just one part of the Old World (the near east and recently South Africa. 2. Continuous Evolution Theory-modem humans emerged gradually in various parts of the Old World J. Broad spectrum collection (Mesolithic Period) was associated with the development of sedentary life K. Domestication of Plants and Animals (Neolithic Revolution) L. Population generally Increased afer plant and animal domestication. M. Growth of Cities and States - The key criterion for state is the presence of hierarchical and centralized decision-making affecting a substantial population. - Most states have duties with public buildings, full time craf and religious specialists, an official art style and a hierarchical social structure. - Earliest states: Southern Iraq (Sumer) in the Near East, in Mesopotamia, the valley of - Oaxaca and later in Teotehuaca III. The Study of Culture A. Definition Culture is personality writ large (Ruth Benedict). It is a sort of group personality that forms an overall cultural orientation within which there is a considerable variation. Anything shared by human beings. Cultural configurations- the Idea that cultures possess internal coherence and consistency. Culture is not just the sum of individuals who adhere to them, because it also includes developed and elaborated traits with greater intensity and richness. This is our cultural heritage. Cultural Relativism is the attitude that a society's customs and ideas should be described objectively and understood in the context of that society's problems and opportunities. Downloaded by Kaye Tagod ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|24618218 Ethnocentrism is the tendency to regard ones culture as superior B. The Ability of Human Beings to Produce and Acquire Culture Can be attributed to the Following Biological Characteristics: Large brain Bipedal Opposable thumb Well developed vocal chords Long period of dependency Reproduction is not seasonal; human beings can reproduce during fertile period C. Theories About the Development of Personality 1. Theory of Sigmund Freud- Origin of Society Hypothesis- Oedipal Complex (incest and exogamy) 2. Malinowski – Matrilineal Family 3. Benedict and Mead emphasized the ways culture develops individual personality. 4. Kardiner - illustrated the presence of various personality types in a culture. Personalities differ because of the variations in cultural institutions. 5. M. Whiting and L. Child suggest that childrearing practices develop certain personality types. D. National character - modal characteristics of a people. E. Objections to National Character Studies Abnormal personality F. Two ways by which culture can be internalized: Downloaded by Kaye Tagod ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|24618218 Habituation-human beings learn certain techniques Education - skills are taught; directed Seaming process G. Language and Culture 1. Communication is a function of language 2. Forms of communication  verbal  nonverbal 3. Structural linguistics try to discover the rules of  phonology (the patterning of sounds);  morphology (the patterning of sound sequences and words), and  syntax (the patterning of phrases and sentences) that predicts how most speakers of language talk. 4. Historical linguists study the origin of languages. 5. Sociolinguistics concerns about the ethnography of speaking- that is, with cultural and sub cultural patterns of speaking in different social contexts social status and speech sex differences in speech H. Sex and Culture Sex and Gender Differences Gender Roles in productive and domestic activities; political leadership and warfare Status of Men and Women IV. Economic Systems A. Subsistence Economy  Food Collection - hunting, fishing and gathering Downloaded by Kaye Tagod ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|24618218  Agricultural economy  Pastoralism B. Patterns of Subsistence in the Philippines C. The use of technology D. Access to natural resources E. Organization of labor F. Market or commercial exchange economy V. Social Stratification A. Definition Social Stratification pertains to division in society due to access or right to certain advantages. The advantages may be in the form of economic resources, power and prestige B. Type of Societies 1. Egalitarian societies are societies in which many positions of prestige in any given age-sex grade could be filled by those who are capable. 2. Rank societies are characterized by social groups having unequal access to prestige or status but not significantly unequal access to economic resources or power 3. Class societies are characterized by having unequal access to economic resources and power. Class society ranges from open class system to close class system. VI. Marriage and Family A. Definition of Marriage Marriage means a socially approved sexual and economic union between a woman and a man. B. Types of Marriages By Number Monogamy Downloaded by Kaye Tagod ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|24618218 Polygamy- polyandry and polygyny and group marriage Whom should one marry? Endogenous marriage and exogenous marriage Cousin marriages Levirate and Sororate C. Types of Family By composition; Nuclear, Extended By Residence: Patrilocal, Matrilocal, Bilocal Neolocal, Avunculocal By Orientation: Patrilineal, Matrilineal, Bilateral Unilineal Descent patrilineages, matrilineages, patricians, matridans Kinship Terminology: consanguineal kin, affinal kin By power: Patriarchal, Matriarchal,Egalitarian D. Economic Consideration in Marriage Bride price Dowry E. Incest Taboo - is the prohibition of sexual intercourse or marriage between mother and son, father and daughter, and brother and sister, Incest taboo is universal, however, the Incan and Hawaiian royal families allow incest. F. Theories on the universality of incest taboo Childhood-Familiarity Theory-Children raised together are not sexually attracted to each other when they grow up. Freud's Psychoanalytic theory-suggest that the son may be attracted to the mother but the father might retaliate against the son. Hence such feelings must be renounce or repressed, Downloaded by Kaye Tagod ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|24618218 Family disruption theory (Malinowski) sexual competition among family members may create so much tension and rivalry thus may result to disruption of the functions of the family. Cooperation Theory- incest taboo promotes cooperation among family members. Inbreeding theory-emphasizes tie damaging consequences of inbreeding VII. Social Organization A. Types of Social Organization Simple social organization is one characterized by relatively few and homogenous social units and less elaborate cultural forms. The family or the household serves as the basic social unit around which all activities revolved. Complex Social Organization is one characterized by greater internal heterogeneity of social units and more elaborate cultural forms. Differentiation in the structure of social relations is clear-cut and it revolves around specialized institutions. B. Some Examples of Associations Membership Criteria Recruitment Voluntary Non-voluntary Universally Ascribed Age-Sets Most unisex associations Variably Ascribed Ethnic Associations Regional Conscripted army Associations Achieved Occupational Associations Political Parties. Special Interest Groups C. Political Organizations: band, tribe, chiefdom and state D. Resolution of conflict: community action, informal adjudication without power, ritual reconciliation -apology, oaths and ordeals, codified laws and courts, feuding, raiding, large - scale confrontation Downloaded by Kaye Tagod ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|24618218 E. Filipino Indigenous ethnic communities may be grouped into five general types (Jocano, 1998): 1. Pisan (campsite) - Agta term for small exogamous local groups consisting mostly of kinsmen 2. Puro (settlement) - Sulod term for semi-sedentary, amorphous aggregate of persons who live in a particular and named settlement (Swidden or Kaingin) 3. Ili (village) - Bontoc in origin which corresponds to village type organization 4. Magani (district) - Agusan Manobo, Sodat organization of dry crop farmers whose social organization corresponds rank organization 5. Banwa (domain) - Manuvu term for self-contained villages VIII. Religion and Magic A. Definition of Religion Religion is any set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices pertaining to supernatural power B. Religion is universal for the following.reasons: Need for intellectual understanding Decrease guilt, anxiety or uncertainty Need for community C. Variations in religious beliefs Existence of impersonal supernatural forces (e.g. mana and taboo) Supernatural beings of nonhuman origins (gods and spirits) Supernatural beings of human origin (ghosts and ancestor spirits) D. Ways of Communicating with the supernatural include prayer, doing things to the body and the mind, simulation, feast and sacrifices Downloaded by Kaye Tagod ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|24618218 E. Magic is the belief that actions can compel the supernatural to act in a particular and intended way. Sorcery and witchcraf are attempts to make the spirits work harm against people. F. Religious/Magical practitioners include shamans, sorcerers or witches, mediums and priests G. Religion and Political Movements IX. The Arts * , A. Body Decoration and Adornment: paint or objects such as feathers, jewelry, skins and clothing. Body decorations may be used to delineate social position, rank, sex, occupation, local and ethnic identity B. Visual Art Artistic Differences in Egalitarian and Stratified Societies Egalitarian Society Stratified Society Repetition of simple elements Much empty or Integration of unlike elements Little empty "irrelevant" space Symmetrical design space Asymmetrical design Enclosed figures Unenclosed figures C. Music D. Folklore X. Culture Changes A. Discovery and Invention B. Diffusion C. Acculturation D. Revolution E. Types of Culture Change Commercialization Religious Change Downloaded by Kaye Tagod ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|24618218 Economic Change Social Philosophy PART I: CONTENT UPDATE Philosophy - From two Greek words: Philein which means "to love", and Sophia which means "wisdom". According to Manuel Velasquez, philosophy is "the pursuit of wisdom about what it means to be a human being, what the fundamental nature of God and reality is. what the sources and limits of our knowledge are, and what is good and right In our lives and in our societies, - Traditionally defined as the sciences of all things studied from the viewpoint of their ultimate causes under the light of human reason alone. (According to Bertram/ Russel, philosophy is the no man's land between theology and science.) Three Traditional Divisions: Epistemology - literally means "the study of knowledge". It deals with questions of knowledge (including the structure, reliability, extent, and kinds of knowledge); truth, validity, and logic; and a variety of linguistic concerns, (e.g. the question of whether truth is relative) Metaphysics ~ addresses questions of reality (including the meaning and nature of being); the nature of mind, self, and human freedom; and some topics that overlap with religion, such as the existence of God, the destiny of the universe, and the immortality of the soul. (E.g. question of whether human behavior is free or determined) Ethics - study of values and moral principles and how they relate to human conduct to our social and political institutions, (e.g. question of whether human beings have the moral obligation to love and serve others, or obligation only to themselves) Downloaded by Kaye Tagod ([email protected])