2025 Social Science Exam Review PDF

2025 Social science exam review Multiple choice, true or false -scantron Short answer- flexible(??) Essay question- comparison of theories Anthropology: Research Methods: Case study- a study of one situation in depth over a period of time (i.e. interviewing someone) Experiments- to determine how o...

2025 Social science exam review Multiple choice, true or false -scantron Short answer- flexible(??) Essay question- comparison of theories Anthropology: Research Methods: Case study- a study of one situation in depth over a period of time (i.e. interviewing someone) Experiments- to determine how one factor is related to another; what happens if one factor Sample survey: to obtain data on the thoughts/behavior of a large group of people. Questions are asked to a sample group of people used to represent the larger population of interest. Observation: 3 types are (1) Unstructured where you study people without a predetermined idea of what to look for; (2) Structured where you plan what will be observed and noted; (3) Participant where the researcher lives amongst the participants for a period of time, observations are analyzed and made a later date in time. Private-Human Characteristics: Differences in humans Shared -​ Fully bi-pedal (walk up right) -​ Over 98% similarity at the genetic -​ Advanced frontal lobe (region level. responsible for reasoning, -​ Can sustain bi-pedal (two legged to anticipation, and complex thought) be quick) -​ Language development (able to read, -​ Smaller brain (all regions are same write, ask questions) except frontal lobe) -​ Tool development (thumbs manipulate -​ Very intelligent more dynamically & complex) -​ Self aware (have a sense of who they -​ Social relationships (more complex are) with religion & spirituality being a -​ Eat meat & vegetables different feature of importance) -​ Sustain close relationships -​ Ability to create tools in nature for survival Margaret Mead: -​ Famous early cultural anthropologist (1901- 78) -​ Made conclusions about socialization, specifically that personalities influenced by culture and that gender identities and roles were not predetermined but learned within a cultural context.  -​ Samoan cultures: in some tribes, men stayed home and handled the children while women worked supporting the community and had most of the power & control. -​ She was criticized by researchers for having sloppy methods when she relied on personal stories and exaggeration at times. Jane Goodall: -​ Studied chimps in Gobe for 40 years, helped to confirm they were genetically 85% similar to humans, observed tool use & adaptive technologies/behaviour, had developed social structure based on Alpha male & the right to mate. -​ Not strict vegetarians (some ate meat or killed other chimps) Physical Anthropology: -​ Tries to distinguish human beings from other biological organisms -​ Physical anthropologists use research methods that most closely resemble the natural sciences like bio, physics, etc. Mammalian Brain: -​ Sign of evolution as overtime we developed the sense of fear and awareness of environmental cues. Not paying attention to cues, creates danger daily from attack or accidental death. Fear is an evolved sense. Evolution of the brain: -​ Communications evolved as a way to help us avoid danger and sharpen our ability to hunt (group hunt). -​ Enables us to build friendships with neighbors and create alliances & who our enemies were and why. Communication is an evolved ability. Male & female brains: -​ Developed differently between sexes, some evolutionists believe this is due to the “roles” assumed by men and women in the past. -​ Males: less neural connections between brain hemispheres (more dependent on the right side of the brain). Men tend to be more single task and big picture oriented. Emotional multi- tasking is difficult. -​ Females: more connections between hemispheres, better at multitasking and managing relationships. “Busy brain” can “overload” and spend too much time worrying about information that is not relevant. Cultural Anthropology: -​ Anthropologists define culture as the learned behaviours, beliefs, attitudes, values and ideas of a particular society or population. -​ A discipline that focuses on how culture changes overtime and how these changes alter who we are as a society & species.  -​ Founder of American Anthropology was Franz Boas who was famous for his ETHNOGRAPHIC study of inuit on Baffin Island. -​ Ethnography is the detailed story of a culture obtained usually through field research or case studies. Cultural of culture: -​ Culture is… learned, shared, defines nature, shapes how we see the world, has patterns Multiculturalism: The political & social belief that ethnic & cultural diversity is the ideal Social cohesion- a way of integrating economic and social policies in order to allow citizens to easily interact with each other Social fragmentation- the failure of society to fully integrate minority groups into the mainstream culture Social integration- the process by which minority groups are brought into the mainstream -culture and are able to enjoy the same rights, opportunities, and services available to minorities. Rights of passage: the ceremony or ritual used to assist or designate a major change in life. E.g Junior high school to senior high school; marriage to parenthood; being employed part-time to full-time; religious sacraments. Eckhart Tolle & the Ego: -​ At the age of 29 had a thought that altered the way he saw life reality forever that drew him out of depression. Write 2 selling books: The Power of Now and A New Earth. -​ The ego is a mental construct that has emerged over millions of years of evolution to protect us from being hurt, doubting ourselves, giving up etc. -​ Ego performs this due to how it identifies things around you. Sociobiology Definition (Tolle): The study of the biological aspects of social behaviour in animals/humans. Ethnocentrism: The tendency to judge other cultures based on one's own values or heritage. Charles Darwin: -​ The foundational principles of physical anthropology are rooted in Darwin's works: On the Origin of the species and thee Descent of Man -​ Describes the theory of evolution- the idea was not new at the time. Natural Selection: -​ Meaning what species best fits and adapts to the environment will survive and pass on genes, not whoever is the strongest. Raymond Dart: -​ Looked for the evolutionary evidence for the development of human beings -​ Discovered a skull in south africa in 1924 that showed a transitional stage between -​ humans and apes Louis Leakey: -​ Felt humans originated in Africa -​ Reconstructed a series of evolution that goes back almost 2 million years ago -​ Discovered other examples of Australopithecus and new proto- human called HOMO HABILIS. Galdikas and Fossey: Galdikas- worked with orangutans, people thought her work was impossible because they are too remote and reserved to be studied. She found that they are very similar to us in many ways, for example they are innocent, welcoming, curious and family oriented. Fossey- Studied Gorillas, learned to mimic sounds and habits. Documented high structure social communities. Murdered for trying to protect the gorillas from poachers. 2 Theories of Human Evolution - (Communication or Aggression): Communication theory- we developed an advanced brain because of our need to socialize and communicate Aggression theory-Our violent nature and need for advanced tools for hunting that caused us to develop our brain and posture Real Eve Theory- Mitochondrial DNA shows that we all originated from one mother and family coming from Northern Africa -​ We did not all evolve in local areas but instead traveled the world to follow resources and changed along the way due to the environmental and climate of different geographical areas in the world (i.e Black skin turns to white skin to adapt to colder weather and less intense sun exposure) Franz Boas: Well known for his theory of cultural relativism, which held that all cultures were essentially equal but simply had to be understood in their own terms Ethnography vs. Ethnology: Ethnography is a research method that involves in-depth study of a specific culture through direct observation and participation. Ethnology is a study and comparison of past and contemporary cultures in every way. For example, values, beliefs, norms, etc. Otzi the Ice Man: A man who was discovered in 1991 eroding out of a glacier in the italian alps near The border between Austria and Italy and his body was found perfectly persevered Anthropomorphism: The attribution of human characteristics or behavior to a god, animal, or object. Ex: The anthropomorphic animals in The Jungle Book have their own personalities, thoughts, and emotions. Sociology: Nature vs. Nurture: -​ Nature : biology, dna, -​ Nurture: how you learn to ‘become’ (ex. Ethnicity…) Soloman Asch Experiment: -​ Showed that at least ⅓ of subjects (and up to 60% at times) would conform to the group's mistake. -​ This reinforced the idea that when a group sees something one way, we individually will be less likely to stand up and disagree. Structural Functionalism: Takes the view that various segments of society serve a purpose for the society as a whole. Like the organs of a body, each has a unique role or function. Focus is on roles and norms. Ex. The family has the task of raising children, schools function to prepare youth for their career as citizens etc. Conformity: Stanley Milgram Experiment - shock experiment. The participant would often give even the highest shock value despite the recipient complaining of heart pains because it was required of the authority figure (the experimenter). Showed that we conform to the power of authority figures most of the time, even if it sometimes challenges our conscience. Emile Durkheim: -​ A French sociologist, he believed that individuals identify with society as a whole and see themselves as part of the larger picture. -​ When studying suicide he discovered that the rates of suicide decreased when people had strong social ties. Durkheim on suicide: -​ He attempted to answer the difficult question; why do people commit suicide?  -​ Looked at social facts of one groups (values,cultural norms, social structures) and compared them to another group. -​ In the end, he revealed that although the decision to commit suicide is highly persona; and individual, the causes of suicide are rooted very deeply in society. -​ When studing suicide he discovered that the rates of suicide decreased when people had strong social ties. Anomie - chaos: -​ A state of normlessness or breakdown of social norms in society, often leading to confusion and chaos. -​ It occurs when individuals feel disconnected from the collective consciousness or values of their community, which can happen during times of rapid change, social upheaval, or crisis. -​ Anomie can lead to various social problems, such as increased crime rates, mental health issues, and general sense of disorder. Karl Marx - conflict theory: Conflict theory expresses that power holds a society together. Order is maintained by restraint or restriction of power. Karl Marx argued that the lower class is being abused by the upper class, and felt that this would create conflicts and eventually lead to the lower class overthrowing elite class members of society. Verstehen = Social Action (Weber): Weber studied Bureaucracy and discovered that having lower levels of administration allowed for the average person to exercise their power. -​ Verstenhen = social action, what we are capable of doing in spite of government restrictions George Mead - Symbolic: Studied language and communication styles. According to mead we symbolically interact with our social environment. Interaction, I and Me: We develop “I” and “me” self. “Me” is part of the self that is partly a creation of those around you. And “I” self is the part that is subjective and determined by just you(how you see yourself). Charles Cooley: Studied relationship between individuals and society. Believed that constant interaction with members of one's primary groups is crucial to developing a social identity. Talcott Parsons: A structural functionalist. Examined social behaviour as a single entity or mass. Believed all relationships could be explained through their functions in society. If something existed in many societies, then it must exist to serve a necessary purpose. Collective Consciousness: refers to the shared beliefs, attitudes, values, and norms that exist within a group or society that bind individuals together and create a sense of unity within a community. The term was popularized by the French sociologist Émile Durkheim, who used it to describe how individuals within a society are connected through shared experiences and collective symbols, which help to maintain social order and cohesion. Solidarity - organic vs. mechanical: -​ Organic: Industrialized society, lack of connection to society on a personal level. division of labor, replaces the individual approach, economic interdependence keeps you in your place. Strong collective consciousness. -​ Mechanical: Co-operation base society where solidarity is based on close knit, family oriented communities and involvement. Communication is a personal manner, a need for individuals to specialize. Social Norms: Certain systems, structures, or actions play a crucial role in sustaining society and ensuring that the needs of its members are met. Gangs vs. Cliques: -​ Cliques: Peoples form cliques based on the need to have close relationships. Usually 2-12 people, significant time spent with the people in the clique, have a strong sense of solidarity/exclusivity, usually the same sex, share things in common with each other, there for eachother. -​ Gangs: Do not emotionally bond, they need each other but not necessarily by choice, acts as a source of protection and belonging, reputation matters, Anti-social behaviour is accepted, There's leaders that people listen to, many members. Stanford prison Study: Done by Phillip Zimbardo, goal to see how prison guards relate to the prisoners. Both overplayed their role as either guards or prisoners.The study revealed how quickly individuals conform to social roles and how power can lead to dehumanizing behavior. Erving Goffman: Believed we present ourselves in social relationships in different ways that are pre-planned and socially programmed into our psyche. Sometimes you never show your real self in life only if you have an emotional connection you feel okay to be vulnerable with. Parenting styles: -​ Authoritarian: This style takes a black and white stand on issues and sets strict boundaries with no real flexibility. Ex: “that's it, there's no more TV this week! I will teach you two to get along right” -​ Authoritative: This style emphasises negotiation and helping children to figure out their own problems. Ex: “if you two can work out a way to share your TV time, you can watch it. Otherwise, the TV goes off. -​ Permissive: This style has weak boundaries and no command. “I'm not dealing with this, it's your problem. You never do what i say anyways” Gender vs.Sex: Gender: Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, expectations, and identities that cultures associate with being male, female, or non-binary. Sex:Sex refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that differentiate male, female, and intersex bodies. Ethnicity vs. Race: Race is more about physical traits, while ethnicity is about culture and heritage. 5 agents: Family, peers, education, media,religion Socialization (5 agents): The primary agents are family, schools and daycares, peers, and media. Other agents of socialization include religion and ethnicity, political groups, work, neighborhoods, social activities, and institutions. Class Conflict (Economic Determinism, Bourgeoisie vs. Proletariat): -​ Economic Determinism: economic organization determines social organization -​ Bourgeois: Elite class/ rich people -​ Proletariat: working class Psychology:  -​ Is the scientific study of the mind and behaviour of humans and other animals Perception: The sensory experience of the world, which includes how an individual recognizes and interprets sensory information. Introspection: Studying and determining the cause of another person's behaviour by subjectively relating to it Max Wertheimer -​ 1912, Phi phenomenon showed that a series of flashing lights are perceived as one light, if flashed quickly in one sequence. -​ Proved that movement exists where it is perceived. -​ applications: movies, neon light signs Sigmund Freud: -​ 1856-1939 -​ He felt that dreams were the road to the unconscious. When dreaming our deep desires and past experiences try to emerge into present consciousness, the brain dreams unpleasant desires as it is safer to process than in real life, where the actions might be inappropriate. He thought Nightmares were terrible, unresolved past experiences that need resolution and must be dealt with in therapy. -​ Condensation: the process of joining two or more images into one, ex. A dream about a house might be the condensation of worries about security as well as worries about one’s appearance to the rest of the world. -​ Secondary elaboration Alfred Adler: Focussed more on how children overcome feelings of inferiority. The present is all you need to deal with feelings of inferiority and false concepts of self. Karen Horney: Claimed conflicts arise from a feeling of being unsafe, unloved and undervalued. Children that develop a sense of security will have more positive personalities. Carl Jung: Worked with Freud then stopped because of over emphasis on sex. Adapted Freud's theories into Jungian concepts Such as introvert,extravert, archetypes, and collective consciousness. Believed the following-conscious mind has positive forces. Human behaviour is motivated by opposite forces. Dreams reveal collective consciousness that is the personal and cultural experiences expressed in a dream ​ Personality - MBTI: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is used to determine the personality type of an individual and consists of four dichotomous scales: introvert/extrovert (IE), thinking/feeling (TF), sensing/intuiting (SN), and judging/perception (JP). Hans Eysenck: Furthered Jung's work by confirming introversion and extroversion based on brain research Ivan Pavlov: Doctor in russia that studies the salvation of dogs, found that they would salivate to more than just food B. F. Skinner: Discovered operant conditioning. Adapted classical conditioning and created a new theory regarding voluntary behaviour. Found people respond better if they get rewarded at a fixed time. Concluded that punishment is often ineffective because people get attention for bad behaviour -​ Skinner Box: Rat was rewarded with food after pressing the bar. A behaviour that is rewarded with a stimulus will make it more probable for that behaviour to happen in the future. Behaviourism and modification: -​ Behaviourism: Studies associations(the study of how ideas are linked together). Learning is a mostly permanent change in behaviour due to experience. Disregards functions of the mind. -​ Behavior modification, modifies behaviour through a series of rewards and punishments used to reinforce the desired behaviour Classical Conditioning: Discovered by Ivan Pavlov, the dog was in a cubicle. They rang the bell and gave food (measured saliva) the same this time with no food (measured saliva. Application of this theory with different species helped people overcome phobias, and addictions. Aversion therapy: Trying to replace one response with another, usually to get rid of a bad habit (vaping). Inducing a feeling of sickness whenever you do the bad habit, makes you associate the bad habit with feeling sick as opposed to happiness. Operant Conditioning: Discovered by B.F Skinner. Subject is being taught to change their behaviour according to the reinforcement conditions presented. Positive reinforcement: When you reward after the desire has been exhibited. Ex: for getting an A+, you get $100. Negative Reinforcement When you stop, remove or avoid a negative outcome. Ex: slather on sunscreen so you don't get burnt. Continuous Reinforcement: Good behaviour is rewarded and leads to the behaviour being repeated. Schedules of reinforcement: These schedules are important in order to teach the new behaviour Fixed Ratio Schedule: The behaviour must be performed numerous times before reward. Fixed Interval: Must perform behaviour within a time frame for reward. Variable Schedule: The x changed each time, behaviour must change in order to get reward. Mental Disorders: -​ Schizophrenia: Mostly older people, caused by drug abuse or even severe depression. Total distortion of reality (even hallucinations) -​ DID: patients have multiple personalities that they treat like actual people. -​ Major depression: Being deeply unhappy, leading to change in appetite or even suicidal thoughts. -​ Bipolar Affective Disorder: Extreme manic or depressive mood swings Humanistic Psych: Focuses on individuals and works with people openly. Aims to empower people and help overcome their issues using internal resources. Opposite of behaviourism because it focuses on conscious experiences. Abraham Maslow: Father of humanistic psychology. Dissatisfied with other people's ideas because they all ignored real people. Came up with a theory that everyone strives to achieve personal potential. Hierarchy of needs: -​ 1st level-Physiological: breathing, food, water, sex, homeostasis, excretion. -​ 2nd level- Safety: security of body, employment, resources, morality, health, family, property. -​ 3rd level- Love/Belonging: friendship, family, sexual intimacy. -​ 4th level- Esteem: self-esteem, confidence, respect of others, respect by others, achievements. -​ 5th level-Self-Actualization: Morality, creativity, problem solving, prejudice, acceptance of facts. Cognitive Psych (cognitive errors): Cognitive dissonance: Refers to mental discomfort experienced when conflict between existing beliefs and new info arises. For example, a smoker knows smoking is harmful but continues to smoke. To resolve the discomfort, they rationalize the behaviour, such as by citing exceptions (e.g., "My uncle smoked his whole life and lived to 90"). Confirmation Bias: the tendency to seek evidence that supports our beliefs while ignoring or dismissing contradictory information. It helps reduce mental discomfort (dissonance) but impairs logical thinking. For example, George Bush reportedly surrounded himself with advisors who reinforced his belief in “weapons of mass destruction.” Carl Rogers: Felt everyone's concept of who they are is weakened by negative talk and thoughts about themselves. Developed client centred therapy where the therapist is a genuine person not an expert. Goals to decrease negative self concept. Association (Behaviourism): Behaviorism studies associations. The study of how ideas are linked together. This is trying to understand learning. Wilhelm Wundt: Founder of psychology. Opened the first lab studying human behaviour. Creating psychological experiments through introspection Thorndike and Rats (reward based learning): Throndike conducted experiments on rats to study learning and behaviour. He placed rats in a puzzle box and they had to press a lever to get out and get a reward. This developed the “law of effect: which states that behaviours followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated. His work laid the foundation down for behaviourism. Watson and “Little Albert”: Denied the existence of any inherited behaviour. Conducted experiments conditioning children to behave certain ways. Similar to Thorndike and Pavlov pairing objects with loud noise. Conducted an experiment on 11 month old baby “Albert” and when he grew up he still had the same fears that watson made him have because of the experiment. Albert Banadura and Observational Learning: Conducted a bobo doll experiment. Concluded behaviour doesn't have to be reinforced to occur. Called Social cognitive theory. Dreams: Dreams are a way to sift through events you have experienced. We learn while we sleep as our brain is in problem solving mode. What we experience in our dreams are a way for our brain to communicate these experiences and lessons to memory. Dreams are the road to unconsciousness. Our past desires try to emerge into our present consciousness. -​ Nightmares: scary memories from our evolutionary past that creep in our brain when we are not fully rested or stressed. Unresolved past experiences that must be dealt with through therapy DSM: Diagnostic and statistical manual used to diagnose mental disorders and prescribe treatment. Original version had homosexuality as a disorder meaning they are not immune to cultural influences Stress & Mental Illness: -​ Stress: Hans Selye developed the idea of psychological stress, stress is a response to circumstances in the environment that test our ability to cope. -​ Mental illnesses: Can be caused by damage stress has on our body. Disorderly functioning of the mind. Past experiences can trigger this Psychotherapy (counselling skills): Aims to offer clients help with problems and dilemmas to learn to cope -​ Counselling Skills: Attending behaviour(eye contact, posture), Open and closed questions, Client observation, Encouraging paraphrasing, reflection of feeling Defence Mechanisms: -​ Fixation: “Stuck on an issue” -​ Identification: “Take on the attitude of your parents” -​ Repression: “pushing unwanted experiences into the unconscious mind” -​ Regression: “going to an uncomfortable earlier stage of life to deal with a current issue” -​ Displacement: “taking it out on someone else” -​ Sublimation: “like displacement but through healthy activity ie. you run 2 hours a day to forget about how bad your boss is” -​ Projection: “you place attributes onto someone that they don't have so you can win an argument or prove yourself right in your own mind”