Anthro Lecture 2-1 PDF

Questions to Study 1. Political Organization ○ What is the key difference between a band and a tribe in terms of leadership and social structure? Band has groups where everyone is the contributor while tribe are ○ Describe the role of bigmen in...

Questions to Study 1. Political Organization ○ What is the key difference between a band and a tribe in terms of leadership and social structure? Band has groups where everyone is the contributor while tribe are ○ Describe the role of bigmen in societies like the Trobriand Islanders. How does the moka exchange illustrate their role in leadership? ○ Bigmen use their own resources and ○ Compare and contrast the authority of a chief and a state leader. Chiefs don’t have all the power 2. Stratification and Egalitarianism ○ Define stratification and explain how it differs from egalitarianism. Which type of society tends to have more egalitarian structures? ○ What is the difference between achieved status and ascribed status? Provide examples. 3. Leaders and Authority ○ How does authority differ from coercive power? Can a bigman have authority? Explain. ○ In what ways does the moka competition serve to establish and maintain prestige among groups? 4. Kinship ○ What is the difference between bilateral descent and unilineal descent? Give an example of each. ○ Explain the concept of lineages and clans in kinship systems. 5. Production and Social Organization ○ Describe the differences between extensive and intensive agriculture. Which type of agriculture requires more labor and resources? ○ How does the Nuer's use of transhumance reflect their adaptive strategies to different ecological zones? ○ What are the key features of pastoralism, and how does it differ from industrial agriculture? Final Notes: Focus on understanding the concepts of political organization, kinship, and production techniques. Be ready to compare and contrast different systems (e.g., band vs. tribe, horticulture vs. industrial agriculture). Relate examples from specific cultures (e.g., San, Nuer, Trobriand Islanders) to illustrate broader anthropological concepts.  Review key terms like achieved/ascribed status, moka, and descent groups to understand how these influence social organization and leadership. Key Concepts to Know: 1. Sociopolitical Organization ○ Understand the four types of political organization and their differences: Band, Tribe, Chiefdom, and State. ○ 4th World Peoples: Indigenous groups whose social structures and political autonomy are impacted by state control. ○ Nuer Segmentary Lineage System: A kin-based political organization where conflict resolution and power are decentralized and based on clan affiliation. ○ Pantribal Sodalities: Associations that cut across lineage and clan lines, often created in larger tribal societies to unify people for a common purpose (e.g., military, ritual). 2. Stratification and Egalitarianism ○ Stratification: Social division into hierarchical layers (based on wealth, status, or power). ○ Egalitarianism: A society where all members have equal access to resources and power. ○ Ascribed vs. Achieved Status: Ascribed status is inherited, achieved status is earned through actions or accomplishments. ○ Role: Expected behavior associated with a specific social position (e.g., father, teacher, leader). ○ Strata: Layers or divisions in society based on social ranking. ○ Class: A system of social stratification where individuals are grouped based on wealth, occupation, or education. 3. Mode of Production & Means of Production ○ Mode of Production: The way in which societies produce the goods they need to survive (e.g., foraging, horticulture, agriculture, industrialism). ○ Means of Production: The tools, resources, and labor used to produce goods (e.g., land, tools, factories). ○ Multidimensional Approach to Hierarchy: Bourdieu's theory that economic capital, social capital, and cultural capital all contribute to an individual's or group's power and position in society. 4. Types of Leaders and Authority ○ Authority: Legitimate power recognized by society. ○ Headman: A leader in a band or tribe with influence but no formal power, based on personal qualities and alliances. ○ Bigman: A leader in a tribe who gains power through achieved status. The Bigman’s influence is based on wealth and the ability to mobilize resources, not formal authority. ○ Chief: A leader in a chiefdom who holds ascribed authority, often tied to kinship and lineage, and has formal power over a group or tribe.  ○ State Leaders: Leaders in a state-level society with formal, institutional authority over a defined territory, typically through legal or political structures (e.g., presidents, kings, monarchs). 5. Mobilization of Labor ○ Bigman: Uses personal influence and the ability to give and receive resources (e.g., pigs in New Guinea) to rally support and mobilize labor. ○ Chief: Mobilizes labor through kinship-based authority—a chief commands labor from his kin group or followers, often for projects like building roads, preparing for war, etc. ○ State Leaders: Have the power to mobilize labor on a much larger scale, with formal systems like taxation, conscription, or the use of a police/military apparatus. 6. Holism and Ethnographic Research ○ Holism: Understanding the entirety of a culture by examining all aspects (economy, politics, kinship, religion, etc.) in relation to each other. ○ Ethnographic Fieldwork: The process of collecting data through immersion in a culture and direct interaction with the people. ○ Survey Research: A quantitative method of gathering data through structured questionnaires or interviews. Vocab Definitions: 1. Band ○ A small, kin-based group with no formal leadership. Typically associated with foraging societies. 2. Tribe ○ Larger than a band, with informal leadership. Social organization is based on clans or lineages. No centralized authority. 3. Chiefdom ○ A kin-based society with centralized leadership, where a chief has authority over a defined group or region. The chief holds power based on ascribed status. 4. State ○ A centralized society with formal authority over a territory. Leaders have institutionalized power (e.g., presidents, kings). 5. Stratification ○ Social differentiation based on wealth, status, or power. Examples: social classes (upper, middle, lower class). 6. Egalitarianism ○ A society in which resources and power are equally distributed among members. 7. Bigman ○ A leader in a tribal society who holds influence based on personal qualities and the ability to gather followers through wealth and generosity.  8. Chief ○ A leader in a chiefdom with authority over his kin or group. The chief’s power is based on inheritance or ascribed status, not individual achievement. 9. Moka ○ A ceremonial exchange in New Guinea Highlands where wealth (typically pigs) is exchanged to create social ties and establish prestige. 10. Nuer Segmentary Lineage System ○ A political system where authority and decision-making are decentralized, with each clan or segment acting autonomously but uniting for common purposes in times of crisis. Practice Questions: 1. Compare and contrast Bigmen, Chiefs, and State Leaders in terms of authority. ○ Bigman: Authority is based on personal influence and the ability to gather resources. Power is achieved, not inherited. ○ Chief: Authority is ascribed through lineage, with power based on kinship and inheritance. Chiefs hold formal power within their tribe or chiefdom. ○ State Leaders: Authority is institutionalized, often tied to the role of president, king, or other official titles. Power is centralized and based on formal laws. 2. How do the methods of mobilizing labor differ between Bigmen, Chiefs, and State Leaders? ○ Bigman: Uses persuasion, generosity, and the exchange of resources (e.g., pigs) to gain followers and mobilize labor. ○ Chief: Uses kinship ties to demand labor or loyalty from his kin group for communal tasks. ○ State Leaders: Use formal institutions, such as taxation, conscription, or legal mandates, to mobilize labor on a large scale. 3. What is the role of wealth in the authority of Bigmen and Chiefs? ○ Bigman: Wealth is important for creating influence. A Bigman’s wealth (often in the form of pigs or other resources) is used to create social ties and political power. ○ Chief: While wealth can enhance a Chief's status, the real source of authority comes from lineage and kinship, not personal wealth. 4. Explain the relationship between gender and power in the context of women's wealth as mentioned by Annett Weiner. ○ Women's economic activities often play a critical role in the power dynamics within a family or society. A man’s wealth and status can be impacted by the economic contributions and wealth managed by his wife, creating interdependence between the genders in terms of social and political power. 5. How does Bourdieu’s concept of capital apply to the stratification in society? ○ Economic capital refers to material resources (e.g., money, property).  ○ Social capital involves relationships and networks that provide access to resources. ○ Cultural capital refers to knowledge, education, and cultural competencies that enhance an individual’s status. ○ These types of capital help shape a person’s position in society and contribute to the hierarchical structure of stratified societies. Final Tips for Studying: Focus on definitions and differences: Understand the basic distinctions between Bigman, Chief, and State Leaders. Apply concepts: Think about how stratification, power, and wealth shape social organizations in various societies. Use examples: For each concept, try to recall specific examples (e.g., Trobriand Islanders for chiefdoms, Nuer for segmentary lineage). Matriliny vs. Patriliny Matriliny: A system of kinship and inheritance where lineage and inheritance are traced through the mother’s side. In societies that practice matriliny, a person’s identity, heritage, and wealth often come from their maternal family. Patriliny: A system of kinship and inheritance where lineage and inheritance are traced through the father’s side. In societies that practice patriliny, it’s typically the father’s family that controls wealth and social standing. Patriarchy/Matriarchy Patriarchy: A social system where men hold primary power in roles of leadership, authority, and control. Typically, this system privileges men in familial, political, and economic roles. Matriarchy: A less common system where women hold primary power in roles of leadership, authority, and control. True matriarchies are rare, but some societies may feature matrilineal systems where women’s lineage and wealth are important. Gender, Sex, and Sexuality Sex: Refers to the biological differences between males and females, such as chromosomes, reproductive organs, and secondary sexual characteristics. Gender: The social and cultural roles, behaviors, and identities that society assigns to individuals based on their perceived sex. Gender is not binary (male/female) and varies across cultures.  Sexuality: Refers to the ways people express their sexual feelings, attractions, and behaviors, including sexual orientation and practices. Intersex Intersex individuals are born with physical sex characteristics that don't fit typical definitions of male or female. This can include variations in chromosomes, gonads, or genitals, and may not be recognized until later in life. Gender Roles Gender roles are societal expectations of how individuals should behave, based on their assigned gender. These roles can vary across different cultures and over time, but traditionally, they have placed men and women into distinct categories of behavior. Gender Stratification Gender stratification refers to the hierarchical ranking of people based on gender, often resulting in unequal access to power, resources, and opportunities. This usually leads to men holding more power and women being disadvantaged in various aspects of life. Gender: Beyond Male & Female This section explores non-binary and non-western gender identities and social roles. Transgender Identity: Refers to individuals whose gender identity does not align with the sex they were assigned at birth. Hijra: In South Asia, particularly India and Pakistan, Hijras are a distinct social group recognized as neither male nor female, often assigned to perform specific social or religious roles. Berdache: Also known as Two-Spirit people, these are individuals in some Native American cultures who embody both masculine and feminine qualities, or a gender role outside the male/female binary. Samoan Fa'afafine: A gender category in Samoa where individuals are assigned male at birth but take on a feminine gender role. They are recognized as a third gender in Samoan society. Geography and Social Organization of the Trobriand Islands The Trobriand Islands are an ethnographic case study, particularly famous due to Bronislaw Malinowski’s fieldwork. The following topics relate to Trobriand social organization, gender, and economic exchange.  Trobriand Islands, Papua New Guinea, Massim: The Trobriand Islands are part of the Massim cultural area in Papua New Guinea. Malinowski’s work there focused on understanding the kinship system, social roles, and the Kula exchange, among other cultural practices. Trobriand Wealth Men’s Wealth and Women’s Wealth: In the Trobriands, wealth is divided into two categories: ○ Men’s Wealth: Consists of yams, which are traditionally grown and controlled by men. Yams are important in ceremonial exchanges, like marriage and the Kula exchange. ○ Women’s Wealth: Refers to items like skirts, shells, and other goods associated with women’s roles in exchange networks and marriages. Public & Domestic Domains Public and Domestic Domains: In Western social theory, activities are often divided into public (outward-facing, involving politics, commerce, or labor) and domestic (inward-facing, associated with family and private life) domains. These domains are typically gendered, with men occupying the public sphere and women the domestic. Trobriand Islands: The Trobriand case challenges this Western division. In Trobriand society: ○ Men and women both participate in public and domestic spheres. Men manage gardens and are involved in ceremonial exchanges (like the Kula), but women also have significant public roles, especially in relation to wealth and inheritance. ○ Trobriand Sexuality: Trobrianders have a different view of sexuality, where sexual exploration is seen as a normal part of growing up, and premarital sex is common. ○ Trobriand Marriage: Marriage in Trobriand society involves both patrilineal and matrilineal elements, with men often providing wealth to women’s families (like yams and cloth), but the children belong to the mother’s lineage. ○ Trobriand Views of Conception: Trobrianders believe that women’s spirits are responsible for conception, and the male contribution is seen as adding a spirit to the child. Fatherhood and Parenting Fatherhood in the Trobriands: Fathers in the Trobriand Islands have a more symbolic or ceremonial role in parenting. While biological paternity is recognized, mothers are seen as the primary caregivers. The father’s relationship with his children is less about everyday child-rearing and more about maintaining status within the family and lineage.  ○ Example: A father's tie to his children is recognized through his involvement in ritual and ceremonial exchanges, but he is not typically the day-to-day caretaker. ○ Brother-Sister Avoidance: There are social norms in Trobriand culture that involve brother-sister avoidance, where siblings avoid direct interaction with each other to prevent incestuous relationships. Trobriand Economic and Political Systems Yam Gardens: Yams are a central part of the Trobriand economy and social structure. Men plant and tend to yam gardens, but the yams are given to their sisters and their husbands. This gives men social status and wealth through the women’s families. Trobriand Chiefs: ○ Chiefs hold high status, often controlling chiefly lineages and ensuring the redistribution of resources within the community. ○ Chiefs’ wealth comes from redistribution (giving away goods and resources to gain respect and maintain power), not accumulation (hoarding wealth). Polygyny: Chiefs often practice polygyny (having multiple wives) to increase their social status and reinforce political power. The more wives a chief has, the greater his influence. Sagali (Mortuary Exchanges): ○ Sagali refers to mortuary exchanges where the wealth of the deceased, particularly women’s wealth (e.g., skirts and shell jewelry), is redistributed as part of a funeral ceremony. ○ Workers and Owners: The wealth is presented by the owners (typically women’s kin) to the workers (who might be male kin). Valova Exchanges: Valova refers to ritualized exchanges that occur during specific events, like weddings or funerals, and are meant to maintain the social fabric of Trobriand society. Kula Exchange: A ceremonial exchange system involving the circulation of kula valuables (shell necklaces and armbands). It’s vital for political alliances and social status, and involves long-distance travel and gifting. Chiefly Generosity and Political Position A Trobriand chief’s generosity is essential because it fosters alliances, maintains status, and ensures his political position. The chief's generosity is expressed through yams, gifts, and ceremonial exchanges. The more generous he is, the more power he gains, especially if he can give away more wealth than his competitors. Having many wives is important because it enhances his status and creates alliances across the community. Key Themes to Focus On for Study Gender and Kinship Systems: Understand how Trobriand society challenges the Western binary and roles of men and women. Economic Practices: The distinction between men’s wealth and women’s wealth, and how both are important in different social contexts (marriage, kinship, politics). Political Economy: The role of the chief and the Kula exchange in maintaining social and political structures, and how generosity is integral to leadership 1. Diversity in Terms (Categories of Kin): Kinship Terms: Different societies categorize relatives in unique ways. For example, the English language has terms like "aunt" or "uncle," whereas in other cultures, those terms might be used for non-biological relationships as well. Categories of Kin: Can include immediate family, extended family, in-laws, etc. How kin are classified (e.g., based on age, gender, generation, marriage ties) can vary greatly. 2. Diversity in Underlying Logic of Kinship Ties: Kinship systems are based on different logics or principles, like lineage (patrilineal, matrilineal) or bilateral descent (both sides of the family). The ties formed through kinship determine inheritance, social roles, and obligations. 3. Kinship Terms and Biological Kin Types: Kin Terms: In different societies, kin terms can have varying meanings. For example, the same term for "sibling" may apply to both brothers and sisters in one culture, but not in another. Biological Kin Types: Kin types refer to biological relationships (e.g., father, mother, sibling). The notation for biological relationships can include symbols (e.g., Ego as the center of the kinship chart). 4. Nuclear Family vs. Extended Family: Nuclear Family: Includes parents and children, considered a more "modern" or individualistic family structure, often in industrial societies. Extended Family: Includes extended relatives (grandparents, aunts, uncles) and is more common in agricultural or non-industrial societies. Industrialism and Family Organization General Differences by Class:  In industrial societies, class plays a significant role in determining family structures. For example, the upper classmay have larger homes with multiple generations living together, while the working class often has nuclear families due to economic constraints. General Changes in North America: Age of Marriage: In many Western societies, marriage is happening later due to education, career development, and changing social norms. Size & Composition of Households: Household sizes have decreased, and there’s been an increase in single-parent households, especially in urban centers. Divorce Rates: In industrial societies, particularly North America, divorce rates are higher due to shifting views on marriage and personal fulfillment. Descent Systems: Bilateral Descent: In bilateral descent, kinship is traced through both the mother’s and father’s sides of the family. This is common in many industrial societies, where inheritance and kinship obligations are more flexible. Unilineal Descent: Patrilineal Descent: Kinship and inheritance are traced through the father’s side. Common in societies with more patriarchal structures. Matrilineal Descent: Kinship and inheritance are traced through the mother’s side. This is common in some matrilineal societies, such as the Trobriand Islands. Kindred, Lineage, Clan: Kindred: A group of relatives who share a common ancestor but are not part of a formal lineage or clan. Lineage: A more formal, genealogical line of descent that can be either patrilineal or matrilineal. Clan: A larger, more extended group, often including several lineages. Can be either patriclans (traced through the father) or matriclans (traced through the mother). Corporate Groups: These are groups that function collectively (e.g., for purposes of inheritance, land use, or political activity). In some societies, clans or lineages operate like corporate groups where property or resources are shared. Marriage and Social Functions Genitor vs. Pater: Genitor: The biological father, who contributes genetically to a child’s birth. Pater: The socially recognized father, who may or may not be the genitor but is recognized as the father figure in the child’s life. Functions of Marriage: Marriage serves many functions, from descent (passing on inheritance and family names) to alliance (creating social, political, and economic ties between families). Affines (Affinal Relatives): Affines are relatives related by marriage, such as in-laws. They are distinct from consanguineous kin, who are related by blood. Marriage Systems: Monogamy: One partner at a time. Most common in Western societies. Polygamy: Having multiple spouses. ○ Polygyny: One man with multiple wives. ○ Polyandry: One woman with multiple husbands, often practiced in Himalayan agricultural societies. Marriage Exchange Forms: Bridewealth: The transfer of goods from the groom’s family to the bride’s family as compensation for her departure. Dowry: Property or wealth transferred from the bride’s family to the groom, common in some South Asian cultures. Bride Service: The groom works for the bride’s family as part of the marriage agreement. Marriage Exchanges: The various ways marriage transactions (whether dowry, bridewealth, or bride service) are negotiated and exchanged across cultures. Post-Marital Residence: Matrilocal Residence: The couple lives with or near the wife’s family.  Patrilocal Residence: The couple lives with or near the husband’s family. Neolocal Residence: The couple establishes a new, independent household. Kinship and Power: Social Organization and Material Conditions: The Himalayan Agriculturists practice fraternal polyandry (multiple brothers marry one woman), largely due to economic conditions like limited land and the need for labor conservation. This practice addresses material conditions such as inheritance and land distribution by pooling resources and ensuring that the family’s wealth remains intact. Important Kinship Practices and Relations in Specific Cultures: Nuer Kinship and Marriage: Nuer Marriage: In Nuer society, marriage often involves bridewealth (cattle) given from the groom’s family to the bride’s family. Marriage ties are central to political and economic exchanges. Nuer Kinship: Kinship is a social construct that involves descent (often traced patrilineally) and alliance through marriage. Nuer kinship is not solely based on biological ties (blood), but also involves social recognition and practices like bridewealth. Power Relations in Nuer Kinship: The elders (typically men) hold significant power in Nuer society. They maintain control over marriage negotiations and manage disputes. Husbands and wives may have different roles depending on the society’s gender roles and the political structure. Patterns and Implications for Kinship: 1. Kinship as a Social Construct: Kinship isn’t just biological; it's a social construct that can vary widely between cultures. In Nuer society, for example, marriage and kinship are about alliances and relationships rather than just biological connections. 2. Material Conditions Shape Kinship: In societies like the Himalayan agriculturists, the practice of polyandry is directly tied to material conditions such as land availability and economic needs, showing how kinship structures are influenced by economic and environmental factors. Key Differences: 1. Monogamy vs. Polygamy: Different societies have different norms regarding the number of spouses a person can have, which directly affects family structure, inheritance, and social organization. 2. Bilateral vs. Unilineal Descent: Bilateral descent emphasizes kinship on both sides of the family (e.g., in many Western cultures), while unilineal descent traces kinship through only one parent’s side (e.g., patrilineal or matrilineal descent). 3. Marriage Exchanges: The nature of marriage exchanges (e.g., dowry, bridewealth, bride service) varies by culture and has significant implications for social, political, and economic relations. Critical Exam Questions to Consider: 1. Fraternal Polyandry in the Himalayas: Discuss how material conditions (e.g., land scarcity, inheritance) contribute to the practice of fraternal polyandry and how this practice addresses the specific needs of the community. 2. Nuer Kinship: How does Nuer kinship challenge the idea that kinship is purely based on "blood ties"? What role do marriage, bridewealth, and social relationships play in their kinship structure?