Introduction to Anthropology & Sociology Power and Politics PDF

SSF 1044 Introduction to Anthropology & Sociology Power and Politics McGraw-Hill  “Man is by nature a political animal” (Aristotle, Politics, 350 B.C) McGraw-Hill  Power vs authority Power is the ability to exercise one’s will...

SSF 1044 Introduction to Anthropology & Sociology Power and Politics McGraw-Hill  “Man is by nature a political animal” (Aristotle, Politics, 350 B.C) McGraw-Hill  Power vs authority Power is the ability to exercise one’s will over others. Authority is the socially approved use of power. McGraw-Hill  Political Organisation Political organisation is an aspect of social organization “ Political organization comprises those portions of social organizations that specifically relate to the individuals or groups that manage the affairs of public policy or seek to control the appointment or activities of those individual or groups” (Morton Fried 1967:20-21) McGraw-Hill  Typology of political organisations In 1962, the anthropologist, Elman Service developed a typology of political organisations: Bands are small kin-based groups found among foragers. Tribes are associated with non-intensive food production and have villages and/or descent groups, but lack formal government and social classes. The chiefdom is a form of sociopolitical organisation that is intermediate between the tribe and the state, still kin-based, but characterised by a permanent political structure with some degree of differential access to resources and a political structure. The state is characterised by formal government and social classes. McGraw-Hill  Typology (cont.) In bands and tribes, the political order (polity) is not a distinct institution, but is embedded in the overall social order. For example, in band and tribes, it is hard to observe any ‘public policy’, i.e. Fried’s definition is much less applicable to non-states. Because of this embeddedness, Kottak prefers to speak of sociopolitical (rather than simply political) organisation in discussing cross-cultural similarities and differences in the regulation or management of interrelations among groups and their representatives. McGraw-Hill  Sociopolitical Types and Economy There are many correlations between economy and sociopolitical organisation. Foragers tend to have band organisation. Horticulturalists and pastoralists tend to have tribal organisation. Agriculturalists tend to have either chiefdom-level or state-level organization. In general, as the economy becomes more productive, population size increases leading to greater regulatory problems, which gives rise to more complex social relations and linkages (greater social and political complexity). McGraw-Hill  Sociopolitical Types and Economy Sociopolitical Type Economic Type Type of Examples Regulation Band Foraging Local Inuit, San Tribe Horticulture, Local, temporary Yanomami, Nuer, pastoralism regional Kapauku Chiefdom Horticulture, Permanent Qashqai, Cherokee, pastoral regional Polynesia nomadism, agriculture State Agriculture, Permanent Ancient industrialism regional Mesopotamia, modern United States and Canada McGraw-Hill  Foraging Bands Bands are small kin-based groups (all members are related by kinship or marriage ties) In foraging societies the only two social groups that are significant are the nuclear family and the band. Membership in these groups is fluid and can change from year to year. Kin networks, both real and fictive, are created and maintained through marriage, trade, and visiting. Foraging bands are egalitarian, in that all differences in status are achieved. Foragers lack formal law, conflict resolution is embedded in kinship and social ties (e.g. blood feuds). Prestige refers to esteem, respect, or approval for culturally valued acts or qualities. McGraw-Hill  Tribal Cultivators Tribes usually have a horticultural or pastoral economy and are organized by village life and/or descent-group membership. Social classes and formal government are not found in tribes. Small-scale warfare or intervillage raiding is commonly found in tribes. The main regulatory officials are village heads, "big men," descent- group leaders, village councils, and leaders of pantribal associations. The officials have limited authority. They lead through persuasion and by example, not through McGraw-Hill coercion.  Tribal Cultivators Like foragers, tribes are egalitarian. Some tribes have marked gender stratification. Status in tribes is based on age, gender, and personal traits and abilities. Horticulturalists are egalitarian and tend to live in small villages with low population density. Egalitarianism, however, diminishes as village size and population density increases. McGraw-Hill  The Village Head Horticultural villages usually have headmen (rarely, headwomen) E.g. The Yanomami of the Amazon region in Brazil and Venezuela The position of village head is achieved but comes with very limited authority. He cannot force or coerce people to do things. He can only persuade, and try to influence people to do things (e.g. by leading in generosity) The Village head acts as a mediator in disputes, but he has no authority to back his decision or impose punishments. McGraw-Hill  The “Big Man” A big man is like a village head, except that his authority is regional, in that he may have influence over more than one village. The big man is common to the South Pacific. Among the Kapauku, in Irian Jaya, Indonesia, the big man is the only political figure beyond the household. The position (prestige) is achieved through generosity, eloquence, bravery, physical fitness, and supernatural powers. His decisions are binding among his followers. He is an important regulator of regional events (e.g. feasts and markets). McGraw-Hill  The “Big Man” Map showing the location of the Kapauku. McGraw-Hill  The “Big Man” Kapauku cultivation is more than just simple horticulture. Kapauku cultivation uses varied techniques for specific kinds of land E.g. labour intensive cultivation in valleys involve mutual aid in turning the soil before planting E.g. digging of long drainage ditches – organised by ‘big man’ Kapauku cultivation supports larger and denser population compared to that of the Yanomami. Unlike the Yanomami village head, a big man’s wealth exceeds that of his fellow villagers. McGraw-Hill  Chiefdoms and States Chiefdoms are a transitional form of sociopolitical organization between tribes and states. Carneiro (1970) defines the state as “an autonomous political unit encompassing many communities within its territory, having a centralized government with the power to collect taxes, draft men for work or war, and decree and enforce laws. archaic or nonindustrial states industrial or modern states McGraw-Hill  Chiefdoms Unlike band and tribal political systems, chiefdoms and states are permanent: their offices outlast the individuals who occupy them. An office is a permanent position of authority that exists independently of the person who occupies it. It must be refilled when it is vacated. Offices ensure that the sociopolitical organisation endures across generations. Chiefs play an important role in the production, distribution, and consumption of resources. Chiefs collect foodstuffs as tribute (upward movement). Chiefs later redistribute these collect foodstuffs at feasts (downward movement). McGraw-Hill  Chiefdoms: Social Status In chiefdoms, social status is based on seniority of descent. All of the people in a chiefdom are believed to have descended from a group of common ancestors. The closer you and your lineage are related to those founding ancestors, the greater your prestige. In chiefdoms, there is a continuum of prestige with the chief at one end and the lowest ranking individuals at the other. The chief must demonstrate his seniority of descent. Hence, knowledge of genealogy is important. McGraw-Hill  Chiefdoms and States: Social Status Unlike tribal and band organizations, there are systemic status distinctions in chiefly and state societies. State and chiefdom status systems are based upon differential access to wealth and resources, and differential allocation of rights and duties. States are characterized by much clearer class divisions than chiefdoms, typically associated with stratum endogamy. The result of stratum endogamy is social stratification, the hierarchical arrangement of unrelated classes. Social stratification, social classes, is one of the key distinguishing features of states. McGraw-Hill  Social Stratification Weber’s Dimensions of Social Stratification Wealth or economic status Political status based upon power Social status based upon prestige In chiefdoms, all three dimensions are tied to kinship and descent. In the early states, distinctions in all three dimensions appeared between endogamous groups for the first time. McGraw-Hill  Social Status in Archaic States In archaic states there were two basic class distinctions. The superordinate stratum was the elite or higher class that had privileged access to wealth, power, and other valued resources. The subordinate stratum was the lower or underprivileged class. McGraw-Hill  States: Specialization States have specialized units that perform specific tasks. Population control: fixing boundaries, establishing citizenship, and the taking of a census Judiciary: laws, legal procedure, and judges Enforcement: permanent military and police forces Fiscal: taxation These subsystems were more or less embedded into the overall ruling systems of archaic states. McGraw-Hill  States: Population Control States use administrative divisions to control their populations. Provinces, districts, counties, and townships. Each administrative divisions is managed by state officials. States displace the role and importance that kinship has in bands, tribes, and chiefdoms. States foster geographic mobility and resettlement. States assign differential rights to different status distinctions. citizens vs. non-citizens elites vs. commoners vs. slaves soldiers vs. civilians McGraw-Hill  States: Judiciary Laws are explicit codes for behavior, issued by the state, and are distinct from the consensual mores and expectations that exist in non-state societies. The state is unique as a political system in that it governs family affairs. The presence of laws has not reduced violence—indeed, states are responsible for some of the most violent episodes in human history. McGraw-Hill  States: Enforcement A judiciary obligates the existence of a system of enforcement. The judiciary and enforcement typically work not only to control internal and external conflict, but also to preserve the existing state hierarchy. McGraw-Hill  States: Fiscal Systems State rulers typically perform no subsistence activities. The fiscal system serves to support the rulers and ruling structure by collecting a portion of that produced by other members of the state. Fiscal systems of archaic states also worked to maintain and elaborate class distinctions, as in the support of sumptuary goods for the elites. McGraw-Hill