ANSCI 3320 Lec Final Term Reviewer PDF

**Chapter 6. Buffalo Production** - **PHILIPPINE CARABAO INDUSTRY** - **Situation of the Philippine meat industry** ** Carabao Industry as of 2023** Smallhold: 99.3% Semi-commercial: 0.5% Commercial: 0.2% Total: 2.74 million heads - **CARABAO** **Conse...

**Chapter 6. Buffalo Production** - **PHILIPPINE CARABAO INDUSTRY** - **Situation of the Philippine meat industry** ** Carabao Industry as of 2023** Smallhold: 99.3% Semi-commercial: 0.5% Commercial: 0.2% Total: 2.74 million heads - **CARABAO** **Conservation status:** Domesticated **Scientific classification** **Kingdom:** Animalia **Phylum:** Chordata **Class:** Mammalia **Order:** Artiodactyla **Family:** Bovidae **Subfamily:** Bovinae **Genus:** Bubalus **Species:** B. bubalis **Subspecies:** B. b. carabanesis **Trinomial name:** Bubalus bubalis carabanesis (Linnaeus, 1758) - **Carabao Production** commonly raised livestock specie in the Philippines has gained remarkable importance as a vital component in food sustainability and income to farmers problems that beset carabao raisers are oftentimes location- specific, thus, there is the need for more researches for this commodity\'s enrichment statistical data show that the water buffalo is essentially an \"Asian animal\" the main source of draft power and meat for the small farmers - **Carabao Classification** ** Swamp type -** distinguished by its natural preference for swamps or marshlands; primarily utilized for farm work **River type -** exemplified by the Indian and subcontinent breeds; considered under the dairy category because it possesses high genetic capacity for milk production - **Problems and Prospects** Carabao production can very well be integrated with crop farming Carabaos are also potential sources of milk A caracow with a nursing calf can produce 300 to 800 kg of milk during a lactation period of about 180 to 300 days. Its potential for draft, milk and meat has not been fully exploited on account of several technical problems : Poor reproductive capacity Low productivity High mortality Poor marketing Unrealistic credit facilities - **Breeds and breeding system** - **Types of water buffalo** ** Riverine Type Buffaloes** Generally, the dairy type Estimated to be 80.11% of the world total Murrah from India, Nili Ravi from Pakistan, Mediterranean from Italy ** Swamp Type Buffaloes** Mostly found in Southeast Asian countries Estimated to be 19.8% of the total population Philippine carabao and the Thai buffalo raised primarily for draft and meat - **Swamp Type - Philippines** ** Philippine Carabao (Philippine origin)** Light gray in general with **two stripes or chevron distinct** on the ventral side of the neck, one near the brisket and the other near jaw; Color is lighter on the legs and outside of the body and the ears; **Horn is generally curved outward** and inward to form a semicircle from the base of the head; Upper surface of horns has grooves; Low wide and heavy built body; Average mature weight for **male is 500kgs** while the **female is 425 kgs;** Average milk production of **1.45 - 2.64 kgs per day.** - **Swamp Type - Thailand** ** Thai Buffalo - Origin in Thailand** Black color and the hair is relatively loan; Strong and broad bodied animals with prominent muscling in neck chest and back; Massive and strong horn to form a **moonlike crescent** with ends upwards; Average weight for **male and female is 540 kgs and 40& kgs**, respectively; Daily average milk production is **0.9-1.0 kg** - **River Type - Murrah** ** India by origin** Jet black in color with white switch in the tail; skin texture is soft and fine Horn is tightly and spirally curled Massive and stocky built, and light neck and head Short limbs, broad hips and drooping quarter Udder and teats are well developed; teats are black, long and stout Male and female average weight is **625 and 525 kgs,** respectively Average milk production of **5 - 7 kg a day** - **River Type -- Nili-Ravi** ** Originated in Pakistan** Black with white markings on the face and legs White switch Horn is small and lightly coiled Medium-sized, deep frame with elongated coarse and heavy head - **Selection of Stocks** Criteria for the right choice of stock to raise: birth weight pre-weaning growth rate post weaning growth rate feed intake and conversion body conformation measurements carcass traits milk yield and draft capacity - **Reproductive Physiology** Carabaos breed throughout the year **preponderance** takes place between **August and January** Dry season usually offsets the fertility of the carabaos the semen quality is adversely affected, resulting in a poor conception rate of mated females **high incidence of \"silent heat\"** occurs during the dry season It is important to separate the male caracalves from the females shortly after weaning **(about 10 to 12 months)** to prevent premature breeding. - **Estrus Period** ** Native carabaos** ** 5 to 36 hours** average heat period of about 24 hours **Murrahs about 24 to 71 hours** Murrah buffaloes ovulate at about 11 hours after cessation of estrus The majority exhibit estrus at night Carabaos reared under close confinement ovulate 15 hours after the end of estrus, or about 35 hours after the onset of estrus Carabaos raised under close confinement ** 21 + 2 days** Murrah buffaloes ** 21 days Carabaos** ** First Fertile Mating** Native: from 2 years 4 months to 2 years 6 months Murrah buffalo: 4 years 4 months ** Post partum heat** Native: manifest 35-44 days after calving Murrah: manifest 49 days after calving ** Calving Interval** Native and Murrah buffaloes have calving intervals ranging from **1 year to about 3 years and 9 months** of an average of about **1-1/2 years.** ** Gestation Period** The gestation period of carabaos ranges from **320 to** **325 days.** The Murrah buffaloes have an average gestation period of **314 to 317 days.** - **Nutrient Requirements**  - **Management of Animals** - **Newborn Caracalf** After the birth of the caracalf, the fetal membrane should be removed, some fluid may have to be drained from the respiratory tract. Within a few minutes after birth, the navel cord should be cut and dis-infected with tincture of iodine. Proper identification can subsequently be done by either earnotching, tattooing, eartagging, or putting a neckchain. The caracalf should receive colostrums as soon as possible preferably within one hour after birth. - **Newborn Caracalf** ** Backyard operation** Caracalves are normally allowed to go with their dams (8 to 12 months) and are allowed to go with the dam for a period of 1 to 2 months before milking. ** Commercial dairy operation** with a herd Murrah or Murrah-carabao grade Caracalves are usually weaned 3 to 5 days after birth and are fed and trained to drink mixed milk. Feeding of high protein diet to weaned caracalves 8 to 12 months old is advisable if it is desired to accelerate growth rate. This practice would reduce the usual delayed breeding of the caraheifer for the first time and, consequently dries its first calf earlier. Caracalves should be fed with caracalf starter at 2 weeks of age. Feeding of high protein diet to weaned caracalves 8 to 12 months old is advisable if it is desired to accelerate growth rate. This practice would reduce the usual delayed breeding of the caraheifer for the first time and, consequently dries its first calf earlier. Caracalves should be fed with caracalf starter at 2 weeks of age. A good caracalf starter should contain at least 18 to 20% crude protein and 75% total digestible nutrient. Starting at 2 weeks of age, the caracalves could be fed with some forage like freshly cut grasses. Fresh and clean water should be provided at all times. Other management practices essential to successful caracalf management operation: Branding Castration Deworming Vaccination Done all at the same time when the caracalves are about 5 months old or immediately after weaning. These operations should be done during good weather conditions, especially the months of January to June when it is relatively dry. - **Growing-Fattening** Weanling caracalves (8 to 12 months old) may either be sold as feeder caracalves or they may be fed with economical growing rations to gain 0.50 to 0.75 kg per day for sale as yearling or fatteners after three months. They may be fed with high-energy ration and finished as soon as possible for slaughter especially if they are not suited for breeding purposes.  - Caraheifer Replacement caraheifers should be separated from the bull until they are ready for breeding. The occurrence of heat should be carefully observed to facilitate breeding and recording. Animals that do not come to heat on their scheduled time should be carefully examined. - **Carabull/Caracow Ratio** A Murrah buffalo bull can be assigned to 15 to 20 females during the breeding season 20 caraheifers a year should be sired by a young bull of about 1-1/2 to 3-1/2 years old 30 caraheifers when the bull is from 3-1/2 to 4-1/2 years old 40 caraheifers at 4-1/2 years old - **Pregnant Herd** should be separated from the rest of the herd especially in the last two months of their pregnancy; they must receive adequate supply of energy, protein, vitamins and minerals for their maintenance, growth and fetal growth requirements poor nutrition may result to poor milk production, hence, it is advisable to stop milking 2 months before the expected date of calving - **Milking Herd** milking shed should be built in well drained grounds which is a common factor for diseases and parasites the shed may be built of native materials like bamboo, nipa and cogon backyard sheds are 2.5 to 3 meters high, for semipermanent shed with G.l. roofing, the height may be 3.0 to 3.7 meters milking carabaos are fed based on their body weight, milk production and butterfat produced the milking carabao may be fed roughage ad libitum plus 1 kg of concentrate supplement containing 16 to 18% protein for every 2 to 3 kg milk produced mineral mixture (50% steamed bone meal +50% salt) could be fed at the rate of 1 to 1.5% of the concentrate ration water should also be provided at all times - **Common infectious diseases of carabao**    - **Carabao Processing and Utilization** - **General rules for the slaughter of carabaos** The carabao for slaughter should at least be three years and above and not suited for breeding. Slaughter only healthy and well finished animals. Animals confirmed to be pregnant should not be slaughtered. Animals coming far should be rested before slaughter. Slaughter animals should be fasted at least for 24 hours and provided with constant water supply. Fasting facilitates evisceration. Excitement and fatigue on the part of the animals should be avoided for a thorough bleeding. Improper handling of the animals during transport results in about 15 to 20% shrinkage of weight. - **Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Carabeef** **Chapter 8: Dairy production** - The country with the highest per capita consumption of fluid milk in **2022 was Belarus.** - The average person in Belarus consumed about **114.9 kilograms of milk in that year. Ukraine** came in **second** with approximately **113.27 kilograms of fluid milk per person.** - **Dairy Industry** The dairy industry covers the production, processing & distribution of milk & milk products which is unique in its importance as it is concerned with the valuable food stuff universally consumed by man. - **The Philippine Dairy Situation (**Year 2000**)** RDA (Required Dietary Allowance) for milk for Filipinos = 30 kg LME (Liquid Milk Equivalent) per capita per year Milk consumption per one Juan Dela Cruz (1993) = 16kg per year From 803 g mean one day per capita food consumption, milk and milk products account for 44g (5.48%) 44 x 365 days = 16,060 g Total milk required by 75M Filipinos = 30kg x 75M = 2,250M kg \*117.3M (2023 Population) Local production = 10.21M kg  Milk consumption per one Juan Dela Cruz (2003) = ? 17,885g Milk consumption per one Juan Dela Cruz (2008) = ? 15,330g Milk consumption per one Juan Dela Cruz (2013) = ? 16,425g From 803 g mean one day per capita food consumption, milk and milk products account for 44g (5.48%) 44 x 365 days = 16,060 g  - **Dairy imports (skim milk powder and fluid milk):** 2.32M metric tons - **Leading sources imports:** USA (36%), New Zealand (27%), Australia (4%) - **Dairy exports:1** 28 thousand metric tons - **Export destination:** Vietnam, Malaysia, Bangladesh  - **Milk Production, Yield/cow, Per Capita Milk Availability, and Per Capita Milk Consumption** ** Philippines has the lowest milk production/capita** owing to the very low inventory of dairy animals and high human population Lactation yield per cow in the country is not the lowest among SEA countries but is much lower than that in Thailand and Vietnam. ** The milk consumption per capita in the Philippines of 15.66** lit is 120x higher than the milk production per capita of 0.13 lit - **Government efforts to develop the Philippine** - **Dairy Industry** - **Dairy Development Act of 1995 (R.A. 7884)** Signed into law by President Fidel V. Ramos on 20 Feb 1995 and became effective on 12 Mar 1995. The act integrates all government dairy development programs into the National Dairy Authority or NDA. Dairy Training and Research Institute (DTRI) Organized in 1962 from the Dairy Husbandry Division of then Department of Animal Science UPLBCA Mandated to conduct research and training in dairy production and technology - **Breeds of Dairy Cattle** **Dairy cattle -** dairy breeds of cattle were developed mainly from the taurine species **Holstein and the Bos indicus** breed Sahiwal (Australian Friesian Sahiwal) developed in Australia are being promoted by thegovernment. In the selection of dairy cows, dairy operators look for properly attached udder and strong feet as best indicators that a cow will remain a high producer for a long time. - **Dairy Cattle Reproduction** **Milk production --** dependent on reproduction since the production of milk is a secondary sex characteristic **A month calving interval** is ideal to maximize production and profit. A normal cow can be described as one that becomes pregnant **on the first or second service** and produces live healthy calf every 12 to 13 months. - **Milk composition, synthesis, and processing** **Structural Elements of milk** Fat globules ** Milk plasma --** milk minus fat globules ** Casein micelles --** consists of water, protein and salt; heat stable at 140°C ** Casein is the protein** ** Salt --** occurs as calcium phosphate and small amount of citrate ** Milk serum --** milk minus fat globules and casein micelles ** Cells -** leukocytes - **Properties Of Milk** **1. SOLUTION** **2. FLAVOR --** fairly blend ** Lactose --** sweetness ** Salt --** saltiness ** Fats -** creaminess **3. NUTRITIONAL VALUE** Complete food for calves Poor in iron and vit. C No antinutritional factor but has no dietary fibre 4. **SUBSTRATE FOR BACTERIA** - **Milk composition**   - **Factors affecting milk composition** Varies depending upon the animals ** Specie --** goats, cattle, carabao **Breed --** Saanen, Holstein, Indian Murrah **Individuality --** lactating, pregnant, dry **Season --** breeding season, weather ** Lactation period --** start, peak, mid, late, dry ** Level of nutrition** ** Management** Lactose --**milk sugar; the distinctive carbohydrate in milk made of glucose and galactose** ** Fat --** made up of triglycerides and lipids (phospholipids, cholesterol, free fatty acids, monoglycerides, and diglycerides) Protein -- the principal protein of milk **is caseins (αS1-, αS2- , β-, and κ-casein)** which gives milk its **white color; serum protein is whey** ** Minerals - major minerals are K, Na, Ca, Mg, Cl, and P** - **Milk components -- Milk Fat (3.6%)** Most variable of all the milk components It mainly consists of triglycerides while other fat components comprise of phospholipids, steroids, carotenoids, and fat- soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K Fat globules are 1-20 μm in size - **Milk components -- Milk Fat color** **Cattle/Cow** yellow carotene -precursor of vitamin A found in the fat Jersey/Guernsey - rich yellow color Holstein - pale yellow **Goats and buffaloes** white Carotene content - converted into colorless vitamin A - **Milk components -- Lactose (4.9%)** ❑Lactose is the major carbohydrate composed of D-galactose and D-glucose ❑Lactose has low solubility and about 25% sweet as sucrose - **Milk components -- Milk Protein (3.4%)** Contains all the essential aa needed by humans The protein of milk is composed of casein and whey **(serum protein):** lactalbumin,lactoglobulin, serum albumin, and immunoglobulins ** Casein --** most abundant protein in milk ** Lactalbumin -** part of the enzyme system that synthesizes lactose in the mammary gland ** Lactoglobulin --** carrier of Vitamin A ** Protein globulins -** structural parts of antibodies that enhances immune system of young ❑Whey proteins are heat-labile, extensive denaturation occurring at **80oC** ❑**Lactoglobulin is more heat-labile** than Lactalbumin - **Milk components -- Minerals (0.7%)** ❑Minerals present in milk are bicarbonates, chlorides, citrates, and bicarbonates of calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium ❑Milk is, however, low in Fe, thus young animals consuming nothing but milk may develop anemia - **Milk components -- Enzymes** Milk contains numerous enzymes (about 60) Source of enzyme: udder and bacterial sources ** Plasmin (protease) --** this enzymes hydrolyses proteins. The activity of this enzyme is relevant in cheese ripening and stability of casein micelles ** Lipoprotein lipase --** beneficial effects of this enzyme possible aid in initial digestion and absorption of milk lipids in the intestinal tract and flavor in certain cheeses made from raw milk ** Alkaline Phosphatase --** it serves as indicator of pasteurization efficiency ** Lactoperoxidase --** activated by addition of thiocyanate, as an antibacterial agent - **Milk nutritive value** Vitamins: **A --** helps keep the intestinal tract and skin in proper repair **B-**complex **D -** added to most marketed milk E Milk is low in Vitamin C which prevents scurvy (a diseases characterized by bleeding, spongy gums, and loose teeth)  **Colostrum** First milk produced by female mammal after the young is born Immunoglobulins (42-90mg/mL) vs 0.4-0.9 mg/mL in mature milk Higher in protein (5x more than whole milk) Higher in minerals (Ca, P, K, Mg) Higher in milk fat (6-7%) than the mature milk (3.6-4.0%) Lower in lactose (2-3%) than the mature milk (4.7-5.0%) **Goat\'s milk -** best alternative for colostrum and person with lactose intolerance - **Milk processing** - **Dairy Technology** Dairy technology may be defined as the application of theoretical and applied scientific knowledge to transforming milk into articles of commerce - **Milk processing - Separation** ❖This process **separates cream and skim milk** ❖Methods of Separation: Gravity and Centrifugal separation ❖This process **removes slime material containing heavy casein particles, leukocytes, larger bacteria, body cells from cow's udder, dust and dirt particles, and hair** - **Milk processing - Standardization** **❖** It is the process **of adjusting milk fat content** into desired level **❖** Standardized milk, **also known as skim milk,** low-fat milk, **contains less than 0.01 % fat** - **Milk processing - Heat Treatment** ❖ The main purpose of heat treatment of milk is **to kill most of the disease-producing (pathogenic ) microorganisms and to enhance its shelf life** **❖** Heat treatment causes **change of milk color and aroma** **❖ Casein** is **heat stable** while heat causes denaturation of whey protein - **Milk processing - Pasteurization** ❖ A process of **heating fluid milk products to render them safe for human consumption** by destroying the disease-producing organisms (pathogens) **❖LTLT -** 63 degrees Celsius for 30 minutes **❖HTST --** 72 degrees Celsius for 15 seconds - **Milk processing - Sterilization** **❖ UHT (ULTRA HEAT TEMPERATURE)---**Heat treatment at a temperature of **135-- 150◦C** for a holding time of **4--15 seconds** that **sterilizes the product for aseptic packaging** to permit storage at ambient temperatures - **Milk processing - Homogenization** ❖ Mechanical process of **shearing milk fat globules via pressure** to reduce the size of the fat globules and reduce the separation of the cream portion of the product ❖ Fat globules with **1-18 microns are reduce to 1 micron** to **prevent formation of cream layer** during storage - **Milk processing - Reconstitution** ❖ This process involves **dissolving of milk powder in water.** ❖The quality of whole milk made by this process is **inferior** due to the poor solubility of the whole milk powder. The inferior keeping quality of the whole milk powder as compared to non-fat milk powder (skim milk) is **due to the oxidation of the milk fat during storage** - **Milk processing - Toning** ❖ Toned milk is obtained **by blending locally produced milk containing high fat** e.g. buffalo or sheep milk **with water and non- fat dry milk** (skim milk powder). ❖ By toning, the **good flavor of the milk is retained** by maintaining sufficient fat content and increase the amount of milk by adding reconstituted skim milk powder - **Milk products** ❖ Commercial milk is available in various milk fat contents. ❖The term **"MILK"** is synonymous with whole milk, which must contain not less than **3.25% milk fat** and **8.25% solids-not-fat**. Addition of **vitamins A and D** is optional **❑ Low fat milk --** contains less than 3g fat per reference amount or 1 % milk fat **❑ Non-fat milk --** contributes less than 0.5 g per reference amount or 0.2% milk fat - **Cream** prepared from **milk by centrifugal separation:** H**eavy cream** contains not **less than 36% fat** and may be called **"heavy whipping" cr**eam **Light whipping cream** contains **30% or more milk fat,** but l**ess than 36% milk fat** and may be labeled as whipping cream **Plastic cream** contains **80% milk fat**. It resembles butter in consistency but compared to butter, it is still oil-in-water type emulsion. It can be stored in frozen form. - **Butter** **Concentrated form of milk fat,** containing at least **80% fat** ** Light/reduced fat butter -** contains 40% fat **Butter oil** has at least 99.6% fat and contains \ - **Types of Yogurt** 1\. Plain yogurt 2\. Fruit flavored yogurt 3\. Aerated yogurt 4\. Frozen yogurt 5\. smoothies - **Cultured buttermilk** Obtained from **pasteurized skim or part skim milk cultured with lactococci** and **aroma** producing **bacteria leuconostocs.** - **Scandinavian and Eastern European Fermented Milk** ❑ **YMER** is a **Danish product** with characteristic **high protein (5--6%)** and pleasant acidic flavor with buttery notes ❑ **SKYR** is another Scanadanavian product. In **Iceland,** this product is **obtained by fermenting skim milk** with **yogurt culture and a lactose-fermenting yeast** ❑ **KEFIR** is a popular fermented milk in **Russia, Eastern Europe**, and certain Asian countries. This product **employs lactic and yeast fermentation** - **Natural Cheese** ❖**Made directly from milk (or whey).** ❖Made by **coagulating or curdling milk, stirring and heating the curd,** draining off the whey, and collecting or pressing the curd. ❖ Desirable flavor and texture are obtained in many cheeses by curing process at a specified temperature, humidity, and time period - **Whey** ❖ **Greenish-yellow liquid** produced from the manufacture of cheese, contains about half of the solids of whole milk. - **Ice Cream** ❖ A **frozen blend of air, water, milk fat, milk solids not-fat, sweeteners, stabilizers, emulsifiers,** flavorings such as fruits, nuts and chocolate chips, and coloring materials. ❖ It contains **at least 10% fat** **Chapter 8. Processed Meat Products** - **Processed meat products** ◦Change by mechanical,chemical or enzymatic treatment ◦Alter taste and appearance ◦Prolong the keeping quality - **Processing properties of meat** **1. Binding ability** Ability of meat to cling together after subsequent processing procedure **2. Water holding capacity** Ability to hold water, affects the yield and the sensory characteristics: flavor, juiciness and tenderness **3. Emulsifying capacity** Ability of meat to bind moisture and fat **4. Emulsion stability** Ability of emulsion to maintain water and fat binding during storage and heat application - **Basic principles of processing comminuted products** **1. Meat materials** Meat from any part could be utilized except from sick and pregnant animals Meat from older animals is advantageous to use **2. Sanitation and hygiene** Strict implementation of sanitation and hygiene should be maintained **3. Temperature of meat emulsion:** 5-15 ̊C for ordinary silent cutter 5-20 ̊C for high-speed emulsion m**ill** - **Classification of processed meat** A close up of a label Description automatically generated ** Sausages (comminuted products)** ** Cured whole muscle cuts (non- comminuted products)** ** Restructured meat products** **I. Sausages - Comminuted** Seasoned meat that may be cured, molded, smokeor heat- processed Meat that can be used: beef, veal, pork, poultry, or combination BolognafromBologna,Italy Genoa salamifromGenoa,Italy FrankfurtersfromFrankfurt, Germany ViennasausagefromVienna, Austria - **Types of sausages** **1. Fresh sausages** Not cured,smoked or cooked Ex.: fresh pork sausages, hamburger **2. Uncooked and smoked sausages** Cured and smoked but not cooked Ex.: kielbasa (Polish word for sausage) **3. Cookedsausages** Cured and cooked meat Ready-to-eat, ready-to-heat Ex.:braunschweiger(liver sausage), blood sausage **4. Cooked and smoked sausages** Cured,smoked, and cooked Ready-to-eat, ready-to-heat Ex.: bologna,frankfurters **5.Dry sausages** Losses about20-40 % of its weight through processing and drying Ex.: chorizo de bilbao, hard salami, pepperoni **6. Semi-dry sausages** Losses 8-15% of its original weight through processing and drying Ex.:summer sausage **7. Fermented dry and semi-dry sausages** Acid-forming microorganisms such as lactobacilli are added to produce desirable acid flavors and provide added protection against spoilage. Ex.:summer sausage, salami **8. Loaves and others specialty foods** Chopped-meat mixtures and processed in the form of a loaf Need not be cooked before serving Ex.:luncheonmeatandmeatloaf - **Steps in sausage making** **1. Comminution (particlereduction)** meat is ground, chopped, diced, emulsified, or reduced to minute particles for incorporation intosausage **2. Emulsification** lean meat and fat particles are dispersed in a complex of water,proteins,cellular components and a variety of spices and seasonings **3. Blending** Ground meat are placed in a blender to evenly distribute the lean and fat particles and any curing ingredients that are in the mixture **4. Placing into casing** ◦ To give characteristic shape to hold the product together and to allow for further processing. ◦ To bind and protect the delicateness of the sausage mixture ◦ To regulate the contraction and expansion **5. Linking and tying** Sausages maybe tied at each end using string or fasten with metal clips Twisted by hand or mechanically to produce links as identical in shape and size as possible **6. Smoking and cooking** Essential for drying and cooking; sausage emulsion is coagulated **7.Chilling** Showered with cold water and chilled in refrigerator (1-4 ̊C) **8.Peeling and packaging** Cellulosic casings on frankfurters and slicing bologna areremoved - **Types of casing** **1. Animal casing(natural casing)** ◦ Made from animal intestine (cattle,pig andsheep); edible; costly than artificial casing; used for fresh sausages and frankfurters **2. Cellulosic casing** ◦ By-product of cotton plant; not edible must be removed before the sausage is eaten **3. Collagen casing** ◦ Extracted from collagen of skin and hide of animals; used for smoked longanisa **4. Fibrous casings** ◦ Toughest of all casing; made from special paper pulp impregnated with cellulose creating strong and uniform container; usuallyusedindry andsemi-dry sausages **II. Cured whole muscle cuts** Cured meat products that are made out of an entire muscle from an animal Examples: Ham, bacon, corned beef, pastrami **1. Ham** Made out from hindleg ofpork; cured and smoked **2. Bacon** Made out from pork belly ** Beef bacon --** from boneless beef short plate Cured and smoked **3. Corned beef** **Corning -** process of preserving beef with the grains of salt **4. Pastrami** made from the brisket,plate or top round muscle of beef partly dried (with salt)and season with spices and herbs Smoked and cooked **III. Restructured meat** Ground, flaked, or chopped and manufactured into steaks, chops, or roast-like products for retail consumers and institutional food preparation. These products have a texture more closely identified with an intact steak or chop than that of a ground product. ** Process of restructuring:** 1\. Modification/reduction of particle size 2\. Blending 3\. Reforming into desired size and shape **Chapter 9: Processing of By-products from Slaughter** - **Animal Products** - **3 major animal products** Milk Egg Meat - **Milk** produced by mammals serves as food for their offspring highly nutritious food better than any single food item a nearly perfect food slightly sweet and pleasant taste **Low fat -** tends to be flat ** high fat -** creamy/fuller flavor - **Colostrum** **first milk** produced by female mammal after the young is born higher in protein higher in minerals higher in milk fat than the normal milk bur with lesser amount of lactose **Goat\'s milk -** best alternative for colostrum and person with lactose intolerance - **Milk fat color** **Cattle/Cow** yellow carotene -precursor of vitamin A found in the fat Jersey/Guernsey- rich yellow color Holstein- pale yellow (carotene - splitted) **Goats and buffaloes** white Carotene content - converted into colorless vitamin A - **Milk nutritive value** Contains high nutrient density - proteins, fats, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins protein - casein and whey milk fat carbohydrates - lactose, calcium, phosphorus and zinc fat-soluble vitamins water-soluble vitamins - **Milk composition** Varies depending upon the animals Specie -- goats, cattle, carabao Breed -- Saanen, Holstein Individuality -- lactating, pregnant Season -- breeding season, weather Lactation -- start, peak, mid, late, dry Level of nutrition Management  - **Egg** Eggs are among the few foods that **known as nature's complete food.** A whole egg contains all the nutrients required to turn a single cell into a chick Eggs are the perfect food on the planet as they contain a little bit of every nutrient an adult need. - **Egg composition** **Mineralized shell** -- surround the content of the egg Two membranes One attached to the shell itself Other tightly encloses the content of the egg - **Yolk** Yellow to yellowish color Located in the center of the egg Its contents surrounded by a thin and transparent membrane calledvitelline membrane - **Egg white/albumen** Surrounds the yolk Keeps the yolk in the center of the egg Major source of egg riboflavin and protein - **Air cell** Formed between the membranes in the blunt end of an egg shortly after it is laid - **Cuticle** Block the pores which helps to preserve freshness and prevent microbial contamination of the egg contents - **Egg weight** Shell/Membranes -- 11% Mineral content -- 94% CaCO3 Albumen -- 58% Yolk -- 38%  - **Egg nutritive value** - **Yolk** Fat and cholesterol Protein Contains fat-soluble vitamins **Contains B vitamins --** folic acid, riboflavin, cyanocobalamin, pantothenic acid) ** Contains minerals --** Fe, P, S, Cu, K, Na, Mg, Ca, Cl, Mn Albumen Very high in protein (excellent balance of amino acids) - **Animal by-products** All products other than meat is a by-product Complete utilization of by-products is the reason why large packers are able to compete with local butchers ** By-products classification** **Edible** - originating from the organs and body parts aside from carcass **Inedible** - **Rendering --** the process of cooking and drying meat and/or other animal by- products not used for human consumption in order to recover fats and proteins  - **Variety meats** ** brains --** have delicate flavor **calf or lamb testicles --** "fries" or "Rocky Mountain oysters" **chitterlings** --intestines of swine ** hearts --**from heart meat of beef ** hog maws --** stomach of hog ** kidneys --** they have meaty fresh aroma when purchased ** liver --** the most preferred is from veal ** oxtails --** used for making soups and stews ** pig\'s feet,knuckles,ears and snouts and calf's feet** ** sweetbreads --** these are the thymus glands of animals tongue ** tripe--** liningofthefirst(rumen and second stomach(reticulum) - **Inedible by- products** - **Hides and skin** - **Condemned carcasses/offals** - **Meat meal** used for protein, Ca, P source in animal feed - **hooves and horns** - **Hair** - **ruminal content** - can be used in animal feed **Inedibleby-products -bones** - **Bone meal --** used for protein, Ca, P source in animal feed. - **Ossein --** the collagen of bones **Inedible by-products -blood** - **Blood meal -** used for protein, Ca, P source in animal feed **Chapter 10: Meat Product Packaging and Marketing** - **Functions of packaging**  - **Characteristics of a good packaging materials** - **Recommended packaging materials** - **Fresh meat** **1. Paper** Bleached and unbleached Kraft Oiled wet-strength bleached sulfite paper **2. Plastic** ** Cellophane --** coated with special nitrocellulose or polyethylene coating Polyethylene (PE) Polypropylene (PP) Nylon - **Processed/cured meat** **1. Paper** glassine, greaseproof, vegetable parchment **2. Plastics** Regenerated cellulose casings Polyethylene (PE) Polypropylene (PP) Polyesters Nylon Saran film Aluminum foil Laminate - **PA P E R PA C K A G I N G M AT E RI AL S**  - **P L A S T I C PA C K A G I N G M AT E R I A L S** - **Cellophane -** thin transparent, glossy film made from regenerated cellulose - **(Polypropylene plastic) PP** withstands high temperatures, more lightweight, perfect for microwaveable packaging, sterilisation and pasteurisation - **Nylon plastic** have high strength and durability than PE and PP. Polyester and nylon provides good strength and acts as good barrier to oxygen. For vacuum packaging - **(Polyethylene plastic) PE** is a very elastic material that stretches easily, easy to recycle - **Polyester plastic is** also noted for strength, flexibility, and thermal stability - **O T H E R PA C K A G I N G M AT E R I A L S** - **Aluminum** is more lightweight than tin and is much easier to recycle as it requires less energy, making aluminum bottles and aluminum tins an eco-friendlier packaging choice than metal bottles and tin cans - **Glass containers** - **Tin cans** - **Three modern method of packaging meat** **1. Shrink packaging** uses plastic film and heat to "shrink" the film to the shape of the product **2. Vacuum packaging** ◦ uses a nozzle or pressure to remove air from packaging ◦ the primary difference between shrink wrapping and vacuum packaging is that shrink wrap does not produce a true vacuum seal to keep the contents protected and preserved **3. Controlled atmosphere packaging** air is completely evacuated by vacuum process and then replaced by a protective atmosphere such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide Recommended for thinly sliced processed meat - **Marketing of meat and meat products** A. **Distribution outlets** **1. Meat vendors/retailer -** sell fresh meat products in the market **2. Cottage level processor -** process and distribute home cured/processed meat products **3. Supermarkets and deli counters -** distribute fresh meat and processed meat products in various forms from large scale meat processors B. **Marketing channels -** a group of people, organizations, and actions that work together to move products from production to consumption **1. Viajero/shippers** Buyers/traders of livestock stationed in the province or regions far from the cities Collect livestock from barrio agents or commercial farms **2. Barrio agents** Employees of viajero/shippers Go to less accessible area to buy livestock **3. Livestock auction market (LOM)** Facilities that serve as venue for more efficient trading/marketing of livestock usually from small-scale farms **4. Processor** Buy either live or slaughter animals and process them to various meat or meat- based products C. **Other marketing intermediaries** **1. Meat dealers/brokers** City-based livestock buyers Slaughter and distribute meat to wholesalers **2. Wholesale dealers** Buy meat products from brokers and distribute to the Retailers **3. Institutional buyers** Restaurants, hotels, hospitals and the like Buy specific cut of meat in volumes required by their operation and ensure regular supply through agreement **4. Retailers** Final distribution outlet for both fresh and processed meat Most of them found in public market