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1 Handbook on LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT Compiled by Dr K S Anil Dr N Geetha Dr P C Saseenrdan Dr Deepak Mathew D K Dr Joseph Mathew Dr Biya An...

1 Handbook on LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT Compiled by Dr K S Anil Dr N Geetha Dr P C Saseenrdan Dr Deepak Mathew D K Dr Joseph Mathew Dr Biya Ann Joseph Dr A Kannan Dr A Prasad Dr Sabin George Dr Justin Davis Dr Biju S Dr C Balusami Dr Suraj P T Dr John Abraham Dr S Harikumar Dr Sakkaraiya Ibrahim I P Dr Manju Sasidharan Dr Roshin Anie Jose Department of Livestock Production Management College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Mannuthy 2017  2 Contents Sl. Title Page No. No. I General livestock management 3 II Cattle and buffalo 33 III Goat 82 IV Sheep 99 V Pig 133 VI Horse 155 VII Rabbit 174 VIII Laboratory animals 195 IX Elephants 220 X Fodder production and grass land Management 231 XI Livestock census report-2012 264  3 LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT I. GENERAL LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT HISTORY OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA The earliest evidences for the animal husbandry in India come from the Indus valley civilization (6000-4500 BC). The archaeological remnants from there include the seal depicting the bull, a clay toy of a goat etc. But it does not give enough information about the purpose of rearing ie whether it was for milk, meat, draught purpose or for any religious purpose. Next phase of animal husbandry is seen in the early Vedic period. For this evidence is mainly obtained from literature. The Aryans who invaded India were nomadic race from the central Asia. They were excellent horse men. After settling in India they started rearing cows. Battles were fought between various “Gothras” mainly for possession of cattle herds. People reared the cows for milk. Controversy exists about whether slaughtered the cow for religious purpose and consumed the beef or not. Historians quote early literature for and against this issue. During the later Vedic period the dense forests of gangetic plains were cleared and cultivated. This large scale agricultural operations required good draught purpose bulls. The society could no longer afford the loss of good bulls and cows. Now the time was ripe for new sects and religions like Buddhism and Jainism which preached nonviolence and protection of animals. Later during the period of Chandragupta Maurya animal husbandry was well flourished. The government had separate department for the animal husbandry and the welfare of the animals. There is reference to a superintendent of cattle and horse, whose exclusive duty was to conduct the cattle census. Systematic record was maintained on all class of animals. The main source of this information is the ‘Arthashaastra’ written by Kautilya. Ashoka the great, established hospitals for animal all over his empire. The insignia of Veterinary Council of India is the "Mauryan Rampurva Bull" sculpture with Pali script "Panesu saymo" inscribed on it. The sculpture is from the Ashoka era (around 300 BC) which projects the Veterinary profession of India in its "Best heritage". The sculpture of the bull formed the capital of a pillar erected during the Ashoka period. The sculpture was recovered from the township of Rampur in Bihar. The bull capital was conserved in the Calcutta Museum. Now, it is located in 'Rashtrapati Bhavan' the official residence of President of India. Shalihothra was believed to be an expert in the horse disease and treatement. Palakapya had authored an ayurvedic book ‘Hastyaayurveda’ on the treatement of the elephants. Animal husbandry in modern period Modern veterinary practice and animal husbandry were introduced in India by the British. It was out of their requirement to improve their army that the British introduced the modern veterinary practice and animal husbandry. In 1808 May Dr. William Moorcraft arrived in India accepting the invitation of British East India Company to improve the breeding and disease management of the cavalry horses of the company. Earlier some of the veterinarians who got commissioned in company army also worked in India with their regiments. But William Moorcraft was the first veterinarian to practice here in civil capacity. He was an alumnus of the Veterinary College at Lyons, which was  4 the 1st veterinary college to be established in the world. He was pursuing a lucrative practice in London at the time when he was invited to India. In 1876 a severe famine broke out in India. Around 60 million people were affected and 52,50,000 were died. Government appointed a famine commission to enquire the reasons for the famine. The commission’s observation and recommendation created an enthusiasm to improve the agriculture in India. In 1889 Government appointed Dr. Voelcker to study the possibility of modernising and improving the agriculture in India. In his report Dr. Voelcker made very extensive observation about the animal husbandry in india. He reported that as a dairy animal, the buffalo was more esteemed than the cow. Small yield was a characteristic of the cow. In Bengal the cows yielded not more than 1 litre a day, in Madras it was 1-2 litres. As a rule the Indian cows milk for six months only. Even then Voelcker reported that as an exception some breeds like Nellore were good milch animal. He reported a case of one cow at Saidapet near Madras, yielding more than 10 litres a day. At the time of independence, India was importing the skim milk powder for the consumption. During that time people were keeping animals in the city. This caused much unhygienic situation there. In 1949 Arey milk colony was established near Bombay to transfer the city cattle from crowded housing areas in the city. After independence Government of India has taken up many cattle development programmes. It is evident that although India is having an enormous animal wealth, the productivity of our animals is not par with the exotic animals. It is evident from the fact that even though 23% of world bovine population is in India, only 12.5% is our share to the total world milk production. In 1994 all our 66 million cattle and 39 million buffalo combined to produce only 66 million tonnes of milk. While in United States 10 million of their cows produced 70 million tonnes of milk. This is not a fault of our animal but due to the lack of planned selection for the production traits. Earlier, the cow was valued as a mother of good bulls with high draught capacity. Their milk production capacity was not given much consideration. As a result our cattle population became good for draught purpose but not for milk production. Selection with milk production capacity being given preference can still produce cattle with high milk yield. But this will take a long time to yield the desired effect. So experts recommended the cross breeding of our indigenous animals with exotic cattle of high milk production ability. Even though this is the general picture, we have certain good indigenous dairy breeds evolved in our country. Unlike our non-descript indigenous cattle, they are having the genetic potential for high milk production. So our breeding policy recommends selective breeding for such animals in their breeding tract. Peculiar features of Indian livestock sector 1. Integrated with crop cultivation 2. Low investment enterprise 3. Dominance of small holder system 4. More equitable distribution of livestock 5. Mainly an enterprise of lower income category 6. More share of female labour 7. Low productivity Opportunities /strength of animal husbandry in India 1. Availability of cheap labour 2. Presence of big domestic market  5 3. A rich biodiversity of livestock Benefits of animal husbandry in India 1. Livestock act as a bank and an insurance for poor people 2. Can be sold at any time and have the money 3. Provide a regular income throughout the year 4. Provide nourishment for household 5. Good demand for milk, meat and egg 6. Enhance the productivity of land in mixed farming 7. Convert larger quantity of agricultural waste and byproducts into human food 8. Low risk when compared to the crop cultivation Challenges before the animal husbandry sector in India 1. Low productivity of animals 2. Non availability of enough feed materials 3. Adverse climate 4. Existence of many infectious disease 5. High slaughtering percentage in case of small ruminants 6. Lack of capital investment for modernisation of the sector 7. Lack of sufficient technical knowledge for the people engaged in animal husbandry Classification of farmers based on ownership of land Small farmer: cultivator with a holding of 2.5 – 5 acre land. If the land comes under class I irrigated land, then below 2.5 acre is also considered as small farmer Marginal farmer: person with a land holding of below 2.5 acre land. In the case of class I irrigated land, limit will be 1 acre Land less farmer: person with below 0.025 acre land is considered as landless Agricultural labourer: person deriving more than 50% of his income from agricultural wage, but having land only less than 0.025 acre Role of Animal Husbandry / Livestock Animal husbandry plays an important role in augmenting rural income, health and employment as follows: 1. Provides food like milk, meat and other value added products, thus preventing poverty and helping to have self-sufficiency in food security. 2. Provides valuable organic manure for agriculture, thus improving soil fertility and productivity. 3. Provides draught animal power for different agricultural operations and also for transportation, thus helping to conserve fossil fuel. 4. Provides a platform for ensuring sustainability (biological and economic), thus bringing about a change in the social status. 5. Provides skin and hides for leather products, thus helping to make additional income and earn foreign exchange. 6. Provides other byproducts like hoof and horns, thus promoting rural handicraft industries. 7. Provides wool and other natural fibres of importance, thus helping to improve income and promote industrial growth. 8. Provides blood as a byproduct, thus helping to produce haematinics and other pharmacological products  6 9. Provides gainful rural employment for many people, thus helping to have full-time self employment. 10. Provides a means of storing wealth and also a way to meet social obligations, thus helping to have security and overcome difficult times 11. Provides a means of controlling weeds by grazing, thus helping to keep the premises clean 12. Overall, Animal husbandry can be considered as a major instrument for effecting a desirable change in the society. Demographic distribution of livestock and its role in economy The data on the livestock population is obtained by the Quinquennial (once in 5 years) census conducted by the Government. The first Livestock Census was conducted during 1919-1920 and since then it is being conducted quinquennially by all States/UTs in India. So far 19 such Censuses have been conducted and the latest one is 19th Livestock Census 2012. India has the largest livestock population in the world. India has 57% of the world’s buffalo and 16% of the world’s cattle population. UP has the highest number of buffalo.TN has the highest cross bred cattle population. 60% of the total crossbred in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Punjab. India ranks first in respect of buffalo, 2nd in cattle and goats, 3rd in sheep, 4th in ducks, 5th in chickens and 6th in camel population in the world. Perusal of the animal census data reveals some trends in the growth rate of the animal population. The most significant among them is the declining population of the cattle. Within cattle the indigenous cattle population is the one which is declining at a fast rate (1.18%). It is the result of the breeding policy of the Government which envisage replacing the indigenous animals (having low productivity) with cross bred animals (having high productivity). The declining trend in the proportion of male cattle compared to female cattle shows the gradual replacement of draught animal, with tractor. Cattle – negative from 1992. Horse, donkey and camel - negative from 2003. 22% reduction in male indigenous Positive growth rate: Poultry – 5.85%, Dogs – 2.2 %, Buffalo – 1.4%, Sheep – 1.12%, Goat – 0.22%, Pig – 0.28% There is a rich biodiversity of domestic animal in India. India possess the following number of breeds of domestic animals- Cattle – 28, Goat – 23, Sheep – 44, Buffaloe - 7 Majority of the Indian population (58%) depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Many of them belong to the small scale farmers. Seventeen percentage of the India’s GDP is contributed by agriculture sector. Animal husbandry is considered as a sub sector of agriculture. Five percentage of the GDP (i.e. 1/4th of the total agriculture sector) is contributed by the livestock and fisheries sector. While the growth rate of the agriculture sector is stagnant or sometimes even negative, the livestock sector is showing a growth rate of 4-6% annually. Among the livestock sector it is the poultry sector which is presenting the excellent growth rate which some time goes up to 12%. In India, livestock plays a multi-faceted role in providing draught power for the farm, manure for crops, energy for cooking and food for household consumption as well as the domestic and foreign market. Animal provide very high quality manure for cultivation. On an average, 800 million tonnes of manure is produced annually. Out of this, around 300 million tonnes are burnt as fuel and the balance used as manure.  7 The value of output from livestock was Rs. 2,40,601 crores during 2007-08 which is about 25 per cent of value of output of Rs. 9,36,597 crores from total of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fisheries sector. Meat and poultry products accounted for 83 percent of total export earnings from the livestock sector. During the period 2008-09 the total output from the livestock sector of India was as follows: Milk – 108. 5 million ton, Egg – 55 billion, Meat – 4 million ton, Wool – 42 million kg More than 56% of the total milk produced in India is from buffaloes which constitute only 44.5 % of the total live stock population. Indian dairy industry is predominated by the unorganized sector. Out of the total milk produced about 80% is handled by unorganized sector. Rest 20% only is handled by cooperative sector and organised private sector. The output in dairy sector increased by over four times and its share in total value of output from livestock sector increased from about 55% in 1951-52 to about 67% in 2003-04. The dairy sector contributes the largest share in Agricultural GDP. Common animal husbandry terms Details Cattle Buffalo Sheep Goat Pig Horse Bovine or Species Bovine Ovine Caprine Swine Equine Bubaline Drove or Groups of Flock or Herd Herd Flock herd or Pack animals band stock Ram or Adult male Bull Buffalo bull Buck Boar Stallion tup She buffalo Adult Cow or buffalo Ewe Doe Sow Mare female cow Ram lamb Buckling Buffalo bull Young male Bull calf or Tup or male Boarling Colt calf lamb kid Ewe lamb Young Buffalo or Heifer calf Goatling Gilt Filly female heifer calf gimmer lamb Piglet or New born Calf Buffalo calf Lamb Kid Foal pigling Castrated Bullock or Buffalo Wether or Hog or stag Gelding Castrated male steer bullock wedder or barrow or geld Sterilised Spayed Spayed Spayed Spayed Spayed Spayed female Female with Calf at Foal at Calf at foot Suckling Suckling Suckling its offspring foot foot Act of Calving Calving Lambing Kidding Farrowing Foaling parturition Act of Serving Serving Tupping Serving Coupling Covering mating Cry Bellowing Bellowing Bleating Bleating Grunting Neighing  8 Animal husbandry has a major stake in the income of rural people. Live stock is sometimes referred as “bank on hooves’’ as it can be sold at any time and gets the money. Of the total household in the rural area, about 73 percent own some form of livestock. Livestock sector is a labour intense one, hence it provide job for more people. The animals reared provide for the protein requirement of rural folk who otherwise are not able to purchase egg , milk or meat. Draught animal power is still making a significant contribution to agricultural production and thus to the rural economy. The contribution is roughly estimated to be to the tune of Rs.10, 000 crores per year. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Common livestock management practices Dentition and ageing of livestock The age of an animal can be estimated from the date of birth available in registers or by 1. Dentition 2. Horn rings 3. Number of young ones produced by the animal. Ageing is important for the following reasons: 1. To issue soundness certificate 2. To select and purchase livestock 3. To know the breeding status of the animal 4. To estimate the value of the animal Definitions / Common terms used in Dentition 1. Alveolus - It is the bony cavity in which the fang of a tooth is embedded. 2. Buccal surface - The outer surface of the tooth. 3. Central incisors - A pair of teeth immediately on each side of the middle line. 4. Lateral incisors - The second pair of tooth in between the central incisors and corner incisors or the two teeth present on each side of the central incisors. 5. Corner incisor - The last teeth of the incisor on both sides in both the jaws are known as corner incisors or the outer or most lateral pair. 6. Cheek teeth - Premolars and molars are together called cheek teeth. 7. Deciduous or Milk teeth or Temporary teeth - Those which may be present at birth or which may erupt during early life, but which are later pushed out by the growth of the corresponding permanent teeth. This will be milk white in colour and small in size. 8. Crown - The part of the tooth which appears above the gum. 9. Cutting teeth or Erupting teeth - The crown of the tooth which has cut through the mucous membrane of the gum. 10. Dental star or Fang hole - The upper extremity of the pulp cavity is known as dental star and this indicates certain age groups. With advancing age, it becomes round rather than elongated. 11. Root or fang - The part of the tooth under the gum. 12. Galvaynes groove - A groove running down the labial surface of the crown of the upper corner incisors of the horses. It normally appears near the gum at 10 years; half way down at 15 years; extends down the whole length of the tooth at 20 years as grown half way out at 25 years and disappears at 30 years.  9 13. Infundibulum - A dark depression on the table of the tooth. In incisors it is called as the mark. It is surrounded by prominent layer of enamel. 14. Labial surface - The surface of the tooth next to the lips. 15. Lingual surface - The inner surface of the tooth immediately near the tongue. 16. Mandibular cheek teeth - Lower premolars and molars. 17. Maxillary cheek teeth - Upper premolars and molars. 18. Maxillary sinus - A cavity in the skull situated in the horse above the last 3 or 4 cheek teeth, into which the root project. 19. Molar teeth - The last 3 large cheek teeth are called molars. They are permanent teeth and are not represented in the milk dentition. 20. Neck of the tooth - It joins the crown to the root or fang. 21. Premolars - The first 3 large cheek teeth on either side are known as premolars. 22. Pulp cavity - The hollow part of the tooth containing nerves and blood vessels. 23. Shelly - The newly developed incisor either temporary or permanent is termed as shelly. 24. Table of the tooth or wearing surface - The part of the tooth which grinds the food and comes in contact with the teeth of the other jaw. 25. Tush - The canine tooth of the horse. It is characteristically present in stallion or gelding but absent or rudimentary in mares. It is situated nearer the incisors in the lower jaw than in the upper jaw. 26. Tusk - The canine tooth of a pig. 27. Wolf teeth in horses - It is a small vestigial tooth in the position of the first premolar. 28. Full Mouth - It means that all permanent teeth, both molars and incisors have fully erupted and in position but it is customary to consider only the incisors. Full mouth is seen in horse at 4 1/2 - 5 years, in cattle at 3 years and 3 months, in sheep at 2 years and 9 months and in the pig at 17 to 20 months. 29. Dentine - It covers the pulp and it is very hard and yellowish white in colour. 30. Enamel - It is the hardest tissue in the body and covers the dentine of the crown. It is clear and bluish white in colour. Dental formula: Species Type of Dental formula Total dentition Cattle/Buffalo/Sheep/ Temporary (I 0/4 C 0/0 P 3/3 M 0/0) X 20 Goat 2 Permanent (I 0/4 C 0/0 P 3/3 M 3/3) X 32 2 Pigs Temporary (I 3/3 C 1/1 P 3/3 M 0/0) X 28 2 Permanent (I 3/3 C 1/1 P 4/4 M 3/3) X 44 2 How to determine the age of animals? Cattle: At birth: Calves have 8 incisors and 3 pre molars of the temporary dentition which are easily palpable below the gums.  10 At 1 month: 8 temporary incisors have their crowns free from the gums and the teeth are quite prominent and well defined. The three temporary molars are well up and wearing. At 6 months: The teeth are well placed in the jaw and are no longer overlapping. At 1 year: The most marked change is the wear of the temporary incisors. At 2 years: The first pair of permanent central incisors replace the corresponding temporaries and the first and second molars push out the temporaries and cut through the gums. At 2 1/2 - 3 years: The second pair of permanent medial incisors replace the corresponding temporaries. At 3 - 3 1/2 years: The third pair of permanent lateral incisors replace the corresponding temporaries. At 4 years: The last pair of permanent corner incisors replace the corresponding temporaries. At 4-5 years: The teeth are slightly worn along their cutting edges, and they occupy a less crowded position. At about 6 years: The surface of wear has reached practically half-way across the upper surface of the teeth, and a portion of the root is exposed. At 10 years: The greater part of the crowns have worn from the teeth and only a little cup-shaped piece of enamel remains. At about 12 to 14 years: Only the stumps of the teeth remain. In horned breeds of cattle a rough estimate of age can usually be made by counting the number of rings round the bases of the horns. The first ring appears at about 2 years and thereafter one ring is added annually. III. SHEEP AND GOAT From birth to 1 year: The temporary incisors are in use and the mouth of sheep at 1 year shows lamb teeth well worn, while in many cases the first pair of permanent central incisor will be cutting. 14-18 months (Two tooth): The first pair of permanent central incisors replace the corresponding temporaries. 20-24 months (Four tooth): The second pair of permanent medial incisors replace the corresponding temporaries. 26-30 months (Six tooth): The third pair of permanent lateral incisors replace the corresponding temporaries. 32-36 months (Full mouth): The fourth pair of permanent corner incisors replace the corresponding temporaries. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I. Castration Making the animal unable to reproduce is generally known as castration. In India and other South-East Asian countries bullocks are extensively used for agricultural operations. Buffalo is particularly valued as a draught animal in rice growing areas. Male cattle and buffaloes meant for work should be castrated. Purpose 1. To render the animal docile 2. To induce faster gain in body weight and to improve the quality of meat. 3. To control indiscriminate breeding.  11 4. To prevent certain genital diseases. 5. Castration also results in lean and slender neck which facilitates the correct fitness of yoke especially in work cattle. Precaution Castration should be performed during cold season and strictly avoid rainy season for fear of fly problems. Castrated animals should be rested for few days in clean and comfortable pens. Optimum Age Young animals: within 3 months (Surgical method and elastrator) Adult animal: within one year of age (Closed method – Burdizzo castrators) Methods i) Burdizzo method ii) Open surgical method. iii) Rubber ring or elastrator method. i. Burdizzo method: It is also known as bloodless castration. The Burdizzo castrator is used to crush the spermatic cord and thus stopping the blood to the testes. This results in atrophy of the testes and stoppage of spermatozoa production. After casting, secure the animal. Move the spermatic cord to the side of the scrotum and then clamp the Burdizzo at about 3-5 cm above the testicles and it is held for a few seconds. Then repeat this operation on the same cord at a location about 1cm below the first one. This method is safe, quick and less chance of getting infection. ii. Open or surgical method 1. Scrotum is opened and testicles are removed, aseptically and the wound is treated with antiseptics. 2. In young bulls the cord may be cut as savagely off but in the case of mature bulls the cord should be twisted before severing it. iii. Rubber ring or elastrator method. A strong and tight rubber ring placed around the cord at an early age of calf. This creates constant pressure and the testicles are atrophied and absorbed and the ring drops down. Elastrator rings are very painful to the animal and so it is not usually recommended. Optimum age: below 3 months. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- II. Dehorning 1. Dehorning means removal of well grown horns. Disbudding means arresting the horn growth at an early age, when the horn root is in the bud stage. 2. Horn serves no useful purpose. Purpose 1. Dehorned animals will need less space in the sheds. 2. Cattle with horns inflict bruises on each other that may result in heavy economic losses. 3. Horned animals are a danger to the operator. 4. Dehorned animals can be handled more easily. 5. Prevents the occurrence of horn cancer. Optimum age: 15 to 20 days.  12 Methods 1. Hot iron method 2. Elastration 3. Chemical method 4. Dehorning saw or clippers 1. Hot iron method A specially designed electric dehorner is used for this purpose. This is bloodless method it may be used at any season. The rod heated with electricity has an automatic control that maintain the temperature at about 10000 F, applying it to the horn bud for l0 seconds is sufficient to destroy the horn tissue. 2. Elastrator A specially made thick rubber ring applied to the base of the horn. The rubber band shuts off circulation and the horn gradually comes off. Small buds drop off in 3 to 6 weeks and large horns may take even 2 months. It is a painful method and this method is used on cattle when the horn length is about 5-10 cm. 3. Chemical method Caustic potash or caustic soda is the common chemical used for dehorning. These are available in the form of paste or solution. Clip the hair around the horn buds and surrounding area, a ring of Vaseline to protect the eyes against chemicals. Rub the chemical over the buds until bleeding occurs. 4. Dehorning saw or clippers When older cattle are to be dehorned a specially designed clippers or saw are used. A considerable amount of bleeding may follow the operations. To prevent the bleeding the main horn artery should be tied off with a cotton or silk thread. This may be done by sliding a sewing needle under the artery to pull the thread in place before tying. It is necessary when sawing or clipping the horns, to take about half an inch of skin in order to get at the horn roots. III. Extra Teat Removal Normal udder should have four severely placed teats of uniform size. But animals with one and even two extra teats are also seen. Such extra teats may be blind or leaky. It should be removed before the calf attains 6 months of age. After controlling the calf the region is thoroughly cleaned and disinfected with Tincture iodine and mark extra teats before removal. These teats are clipped off with scissors. Some more tincture is applied after finishing the process. In the older heifer, suture is put in order to arrest bleeding. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Methods of drug administration Medicines are administered in two ways. 1. Oral administration - It is the administration of medicines through mouth. By oral method, medicines can be administered in liquid, solid or semi solid form. 2. Parentral administration Any other route of administration other than or via digestive system is called parentral administration eg: by injection.  13 A. Oral administration 1. Drenches These are medicines given in liquid form. Drenches may be given through mouth or through a stomach tube. For administration of fluid medicines to horses stomach tube is used. Cattle – Metal drencher and stomach tube can be used for administering fluid medicines to cattle. Stomach tube can be passed through the mouth.Careless drenching may lead to aspiration pneumonia. Sheep and Goat-Stomach tube or drenching cup may be used for administration of medicines. A mouth gag is required to prevent the tube being chewed during introduction of stomach tube through mouth. 2. Boluses and pills It is the solid form of medicine Horses: - The tongue is held between the upper and lower jaws and the mouth is kept open. The bolus is held between first and second fingers of right hand and is inserted into the left side of the horse’s mouth along the roof. The right hand is quickly withdrawn and the tongue is released. Cattle: The mouth should be opened by hand or gag and boluses, pills etc. can be deposited on the back of the tongue. A balling gun may be necessary for calves and young cattle. 3. Electuaries It is a semisolid form of medicine. These are thick viscid mixtures prepared with treacle and placed on the back of the tongue. Powders are often given by this method. It is a common way of giving medicines for respiratory complaints or when swallowing is difficult. Cattle: The nostrils are held by an assistant and the operator opens the mouth of the animal. The electuaries can be smeared on the tongue. Sheep and goat: Sheep and goat are held as for drenching and the electuaries can be smeared on the tongue B. Parentral administration of medicines 1. Hypodermic or subcutaneous injections. Medicine is injected under the skin with a sterilized hypodermic needle and syringe. The rate of absorption is slow as compared to intramuscular and intravenous routes. Site of injection Horse and cattle – neck region Sheep and goat – flank region. 2. Intramuscular injection Medicines which are not suitable to administer through subcutaneous route are administered directly into a muscle. A longer and stouter needle is desirable. Site of injection Horse, cattle, sheep and goat- muscles of breast, neck, triceps, buttock muscles 3. Intravenous injection In this method, medicine is injected directly into the blood stream. Site of injection Cattle- jugular vein, Sheep and goat – jugular vein  14 4. Intraperitoneal injection The drug is injected into the peritoneal cavity in large animals by means of trocar and canula, inserted into the upper part of the left flank. In small animals a hypodermic syringe with long needle is used. 5. Intratracheal injection The drug is injected directly into the trachea with a specially made intra tracheal needle or canula in certain conditions like parasitic bronchitis in young cattle and sheep. 6. Intra mammary infusions A special syringe or teat siphon is used and the infusion is pressed into the teat canal in case of mastitis. First milk in the udder is removed then appropriate antibiotic is infused. 7. Intra- uterine irrigation Antiseptic solutions are injected into the uterus so as to irrigate the uterine cavity with a two way catheters. Otherwise a specially designed metal catheter for cow, rubber tubing and pump for mare,a syringe for bitches and cats may be used. 8. Intra-runminal injection: Medicines are sometimes given directly into the rumen. A trocar and canula is introduced into the rumen through the hollow of the left flask. Some anti parasitic medicines are given through this route. Other methods 1. Pessaries These are solid forms of medicines for insertion into the uterus and vagina of large animals. 2. Inhalation Medicaments are added to boiling water and the resulting vapour is inhaled. It is useful for all animals for respiratory diseases. 3. Enema It is given for evacuation of bowel. Sometimes nutrient enema may be given to animals which are unable to take nourishment in the ordinary way. 4. Poulties It is a thick pasty preparation applied hot or cold for local application of heat and moisture intended for the relief of pain and inflammation of applied part. Glycerin and kaolin with turpentine are taken in a semi solid form (paste) and applied hot upon a piece of gauze or cotton wool on affected body parts. 5. Fomentation This is a first aid treatment for many types of sprains. It is used in the form of either hot or ice cold fomentation. 6. Baths Animal suffering from hoof diseases (eg: foot rot in sheep) may be driven through a shallow trough or foot bath containing antiseptics. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------  15 Transport of livestock by rail, road and on foot General rules 1. A valid certificate by a qualified veterinary surgeon to the effect that the cattle are in a fit condition to travel by rail or road and are not suffering from any infectious or contagious or parasitic diseases and that they have been vaccinated against rinderpest and any other infectious or contagious or parasitic diseases, shall accompany each consignment. 2. In the absence of such a certificate, the carrier shall refuse to accept the consignment for transport. Veterinary first-aid equipment shall accompany all batches of cattle. 3. Each consignment shall bear a label showing in bold red letters the name, address and telephone number (if any) of the consignor and consignee, the number and types of cattle being transported and quantity of rations and food provided. 4. The consignee shall be informed about the train or vehicle in which the consignment of cattle is being sent and its arrival time in advance. The consignment of cattle shall be booked by the next train or vehicle and shall not be detained after the consignment is accepted for booking. Transport of cattle by train  The average space provided per cattle in Railway wagon or vehicle shall not be less than two square metres.  Suitable rope and platforms should be used for loading cattle from vehicles. In case of railway wagon the dropped door of the wagon may be used as a ramp when loading or unloading is done to the platform.  Cattle shall be loaded after they are properly fed and given water. Cattle in advanced stage of pregnancy shall not be mixed with young cattle in order to avoid stampede during transportation.  Watering arrangements on route shall be made and sufficient quantities of water shall be carried for emergency. Sufficient feed and fodder with adequate reserve shall be carried to last during the journey. Adequate ventilation shall be ensured.  When cattle is to be transported by rail. An ordinary goods wagon shall carry not more than ten adult cattle or fifteen calves on broad gauge, not more than six adult cattle or ten calves on metre gauge, or not more than four adult cattle or six calves on narrow gauge.  Every wagon carrying cattle shall have at least one attendant. Cattle shall be loaded parallel to the rails, facing each other.  Rations for padding, such as straw, shall be placed on the floor to avoid injury if a cattle lies down and this shall not be less than 6 cm thick. Rations for the journey shall be carried in the middle of the wagon.  To provide adequate ventilation, upper door of one side of the wagon shall be kept open properly fixed and the upper door of the wagon shall have wire gauge closely welded mesh arrangements to prevent burning cinders from the engines entering the wagon and leading to fire outbreak. Cattle wagons should be attached in the middle of the train.  Two breast bars shall be provided on each side of the wagon, one at height of 60 to 80 cm and the other at 100 to 110 cm.  16  Cattle-in-milk shall be milked at least twice a day and the calves shall be given sufficient quantity of milk to drink.  As far as possible, cattle may be moved during the nights only. During day time, if possible, they should be unloaded, fed, given water and rested and if in milk, milking shall be carried out. Transport of cattle by road or truck Transport by road or truck has the convenience of loading at the farm and direct transit to the point of market. The absence of repeated handling and disturbance associated with it and consequent avoidance of serious weight loss. But the poor road condition and longer distance to be traveled cause comparatively higher cost per km than rails. When cattle are to be transported by goods vehicle the following precautions are to be taken namely (a) Specially fitted goods vehicles with a special type of tail board and padding around the sides should be used. (b) Ordinary goods vehicles shall be provided with anti-slipping material, such as coir matting or wooden board on the floor and the superstructure, if low, should be raised. (c) No goods vehicle shall carry more than six cattle. (d) Each goods vehicle shall be provided with one attendant. (e) while transporting, the cattle, the goods vehicle shall not be loaded with any other merchandise; and (f) To prevent cattle being frightened or injured, they should preferably, face the engine. Transport of sheep and goat o Sheep and goats shall be transported separately; but if the lots are small special partition shall be provided to separate them. o Rams and male young stock shall not be mixed with female stock in the same compartment. o Material for padding, such as straw, shall be placed on the floor to avoid injury if an animal lies down, and this shall be not less than 5 cm thick. o The animals shall not be fettered unless there is a risk of their jumping out and their legs shall not be tied down. o The space required for a goat shall be the same as that for a woolled sheep and the approximate space required for a sheep in a goods vehicle or a railway wagon shall be as under:- Space requirement in square metres (approximate weight of animal in kg) 2 Spac (m ) Weight (kg) Sheep Goat Not more than 20 0.18 0.16 More than 20 but not more than 25 0.20 0.18 More than 25 but not more than 30 0.23 0.22 More than 30 0.28 0.26  17 Number animals can be transported by train Broad gauge Meter gauge Narrow gauge Area less than Above Area less than Area above 2 2 2 2 21.1 m 21.1m 12.5 m 12.5m 70 100 50 60 25 Condition for transport of cattle sheep and goat by foot  Transport by foot is one of the economical ways of transport. But it can be used for short period.  Feeding and watering points can be arranged along the transit route  For every 20 km animals can be given rest and provided with feeding and watering arrangement  Weight loss due to transit can be minimized by providing regular feeding  Cattle can easily be driven for about 30-35 km in a day  Transit during hottest part of the day should be avoided  As far as possible animals should be driven on soft ground on either sides of the road. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Common farm management practices Common Farm Management Practices include disinfection, isolation, quarantine and disposal of carcass. Disinfection Disinfectants are substances that are applied to non- living objects to destroy micro organisms that are living on the objects. Disinfection does not necessarily kill all microorganisms, especially more resistant bacterial spores. Disinfection can be brought about with the help of physical, chemical and gaseous agents. Most disinfectants are chemical agents. 1. Physical disinfectants: a. Heat- Heat destroys microorganisms by denaturation of their cellular proteins. Heat can be used in two forms for disinfection: dry and moist. Dry heat may be applied in the form of flame (300oC) to floors, walls and surfaces. Moist heat is applied in the form of steam. Moist heat is more effective for disinfection of equipment and utensils. b. Radiation The bactericidal effect of solar radiation is due to the presence of ultraviolet rays in sunlight. Artificial UV lamps can also be used for disinfection. c. Filtration This technique has been used to control the microbial population in air, water and biological materials. d. Desication This process removes moisture from microorganisms, the drying effect varying with the type of microorganisms. 2. Chemical disinfectants They are cheap and have a broad spectrum of activity. A good disinfectant neither stains nor damage materials. It is free of undesirable odour. Most commonly used chemical disinfectants are,  18 a. Acid and alkali Eg: Boric acid (4-6%), Sodium hydroxide (lye) (1-5% solution) Calcium hydroxide (lime water and slaked lime) b. Aldehydes eg: Formaldehyde (5-10 % solution) can be used for washing floor of animal houses. Gluteraldehyde (2%) aqueous solution is useful for sterilization of instruments. c. Detergents and soap These are mainly used for washing. They remove grease, dirt and other organic matter which tend to reduce the efficacy of disinfectants eg: quaternary ammonium compounds and savlon. d.Halogens These are widely used in veterinary practice. A process of oxidation following exposure to either chlorine or iodine brings about destruction of pathogens. Gaseous chlorine, hypochlorite and organic chloramines are commonly used. e. Metallic compounds Copper sulphate (5mg /litre) can be used f. Oxidizing agents Potassium permangnate (1-2 mg per litre) can be used g. Phenols This group includes cresol ((3-5%), lysol (3-5%), tar acids and hexachlorophene etc. 0.5 to 5% phenol can be used for farm buildings h. Bleaching powder: (chlorinated lime) – Calcium hypochlorite It is available in the form of white power. 1kg of bleaching powder in 25 liters of water can be used as a good deodorant. i. Sodium hypochlorite - It is similar to beaching powder. It is a powerful germicide in the absence of organic matter. j. Quick lime (calcium oxide) Fresh lime is a good disinfectant. It is used in the burial pits to dispose the carcass and for land application. 3. Gaseous disinfectants Formalin gas, ozone gas and cresol gas can be used. Clear, colourless, aqueous solution of 40% formaldehyde is formalin. 1. Quarantine Quarantine is the process of segregating apparently healthy animals (especially animal being introduced into a herd or into a country for the first time) which have been exposed to the risk of infection. Quarantine period depends on the incubation period of diseases. In practice, a minimum period of 30-40 days has been generally accepted as a reasonable period; but in case of diseases like rabies it is up to 6 months. During this period the animals should be screened for internal parasites by faecal examination and deworming should be carried out on 23 rd /24th day if need arise. They should be dipped or sprayed on 25th /26th day to remove ectoparasites. 2. Isolation Isolation is the process of segregation of affected animals and in contact animals from the apparently healthy ones in the event of outbreak of a contagious disease. Such segregated animals should preferably be housed in a separate isolation shed situated far  19 away from the normal animal house. Animals for isolation should be tied at one end of the shed as far away as possible from the apparently healthy stock. Attendants and equipments for sick animals should be ideally separate. If this is not possible due to practical reasons, the sick animals should be attended only after the healthy stock. The equipments should be thoroughly disinfected after use in the isolation group. The attendant should wash his hands, feet and gumboots in antiseptic lotions and change his cloths. The isolated animals are brought back to the healthy herd only after they are fully recovered and the chance of passing on the infection is removed. IV. Disposal and utilization of carcass The primary purpose of safe disposal of carcass is to check the spread of diseases either to other susceptible animals or humans. Carcasses are disposed by sending them to knackeries (A place where old injured horses are takes to be killed) by burial or burning. a. Burial of carcasses. A suitable place should be selected. The burial place must be distant, from a well or water source and there should be sufficient sub soil to allow a depth of 6 feet above the carcass. The carcass must be buried in its skin, covered with sufficient quantity of quick lime or other disinfectants. The dead animals should be arranged upon its back with feet upwards. b. Incineration /burning of carcasses There are 4 methods of incineration 1. Pit method. 2. Surface burning method 3. Flame gun method 4. Incineration in a destructor. 1. Pit Method For the carcass of a large cow, dig a pit measuring about 7 feet long, 4 feet wide and 18 inch deep. A trench of 9” width 9” depth is dug across the bottom of the pit, the end of the pit sloped upwards so as to reach ground level about 2.5 feet from the edge of the pit. The purpose of the trench is to provide draught (flow of cool air in a confined space) to facilitate lighting of fire. Cover the bottom of the pit with thin pieces of wood which is saturated with paraffin. The trench is filled with straw soaked with paraffin to provide lighting points. The fire is started by lighting the straw at one or both ends of the lighting points. 2. Surface burning method This method is usually adopted when labour is scarce or when the nature of ground is not suitable for construction of pit or when the land is water logged. In this method two parallel trenches of about 5 feet long 9 inches wide and 9 inches deep and 2 feet apart are dug in the direction of prevailing wind. A small quantity of paraffin saturated straw is added in the trenches for lighting fire. Carcass is placed over the trenches and coal & wood soaked with paraffin is placed on around the carcass 3. Flame gun method No pit or trench is required in this method. The carcass is placed on ground or corrugated iron sheet and a powerful flame is directed towards it to destroy the carcass. The time taken depends on the number of flame guns and the size of the animals. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------  20 Common vices of animals, their prevention and care Vices are abnormal or bad habits shown by animals Dairy animals Eye rolling: The eyes are moved around in the orbit at a time when no visible object is present. Normally seen in calves confined in crates and made to stand immobile for extended period. Tongue rolling: The tongue is extruded from the mouth and moved by curling and uncurling outside or inside the mouth with no solid material present. This condition occurs in all ages and breeds but young adult cattle and certain breeds such as Brown Swiss exhibit it most frequently. Factors responsible for this vice may be hereditary, continuous confinement or feeding of low roughages. Control method includes insertion of a metal ring through the frenulum of the tongue, dietary inclusion of salt mixture and free movement. Licking and eating own hair, wool: Many young calves housed in individual crates, early weaning leads to licking those parts of their bodies which they can reach. This results in ingestion of large quantities of hair which aggregates into hair balls or bezoars in the rumen. This vice is more common in calves moved from individual pen to group housing. Sucking and eating solid objects: Recently weaned calves will often suck and lick the walls and bars of their pen. This can be controlled by applying regular creosote paint on wood surface. Feeding good quality concentrate and roughage will minimize the incidence. Intersucking by calves: Calves separated from their mothers suck and lick their own bodies, objects in their pens and at parts of the bodies of other calves. They commonly suck on the navl, prepuce, scrotum, udder and ears of other animals. Intersucking or milk sucking by adult animals: This behaviour involves a cow or bull sucking milk from the udder of a cow. Cattle suck milk from herd mates and choose the same lactating animal. This vice may lead to loss of milk yield and damage to teat. Proper feeding management and herd supervision can minimize such incidents. Sheep and goat Wool pulling and wool eating: Wool pulling is a form of abnormal behaviour which occurs in sheep within restrictive enclosure and indoor management systems. Over crowding and deficiency of roughage in the diet are the contributing factors for this vice. Stealing young / lamb stealing: Pre-parturient ewes, cows and mares often approach, sniff and remain close to the new born young of other members of the group. This leads to reduced maternal support to the young and it become weak. In lamb stealing, the foster mother may later reject her own lamb when it is born or may have no colostrum left for it. In these various situations lamb may often die. This problem can be controlled by separating the ewe or cow from the group before and very soon after parturition. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Livestock resource and resource management Current status and Future Demand Animal production contributes about 40% of the total value to agriculture globally. Two billion people depend at least in part, directly upon livestock for their lively hood. The wide variety of livestock genetic resources provide varieties of meats, milk and  21 eggs, together with a broad range of other goods and services such as draught, fibre, hide, skin, manure etc. Judicious utilisation and enhancement of the quality of these resources is important to ensure their sustainability to meet future demand. Human population growth, progressive urbanization and large purchasing power of people will increase the demand for livestock products. The projected growth in total consumption of meat and milk is 2.9 and 4.3 % per year respectively for India Two major considerations that will guide future activities are- 1. The conservation of livestock genetic resources and maintenance of diversity. 2. Substantial increase in rate and efficiency of livestock production. The Indian sub-continent is a hot spot amongst the 12 mega biodiversity resource centers in the world. In domesticated livestock and birds a large number of breeds/types of cattle, buffaloes, sheeps, goats, pigs, horses, camels, mithun, yak, dogs, cats, poultry, ducks, geese, turkeys, guinea fowls and pheasants have evolved over time through natural selection and some human effort. In India 27 cattle breeds, 10 buffalo breeds, 44 sheep breeds, 20 goat breeds, 4 horse breeds, and 2 camels breeds have been so far identified and documented. With appropriate management, livestock enable sustainable use of lands for food production transforming unusable fibrous material into high quality protein, the milk and meat for human beings. When poorly managed especially in fragile eco-systems, livestock species becomes one of the causes of environmental pollution, environmental degradation and desertification. Production Systems Indigenous breeds survive, produce and reproduce in environments under which they have been evolved. Different production systems are in existence in different regions of the country. Constraint analysis including strength, weakness, opportunities and threats (SWOT) of different production system is necessary for developing strategies for conservation and management of livestock genetic resources. Technological Impact Major changes in livestock production have occurred during the past few decades due to the introduction of several new technologies. Eg. Control of disease like Rinder pest, artificial insemination, artificial incubation, embryo transfer and associated technologies (genomics, cloning and transgenesis). It is therefore necessary that research in newer biotechnologies are intensified, so that traditional genetic improvement methods like progeny testing and sire/dam evaluation schemes are by-passed in future. Strategies for Conservation of Livestock Biodiversity A number of methods have been used for conservation of livestock genetic resources. These include in-situ and ex-situ conservation of the breeds/population. In-situ conservation can be done either in the habitat or outside the habitat such as biological farm. The major advantages are that the animals are always available for immediate use and live animals are present, creating awareness among people. Ex-situ conservation consists of preservation in the form of cryo-preservation of semen, ova, embryos, skin, blood, embryonic stem cells, DNA fragments etc. These methods are important especially when the breed is rare or near extinction. Utilisation of Genetic Resources. Sound genetic resource utilisation policy relevant to different farm animal species based on livestock population, breeding structure, disease problems, availability of feed resources, change in social structure, sustainability of production system in terms of  22 market demand of products and prices is the need of the hour for efficient and sustainable livestock resource management. Livestock production systems of different agro-climatic zones Pure livestock production system is defined as systems in which more than 90% of dry matter fed to animals comes from rangelands, pastures, annual forages and purchased feeds, and less than 10% of the total value of production comes from non- livestock farming activities. Mixed farming systems are livestock systems in which more than 10% of the dry matter fed to animals comes from crop by-products such as stubble, or where more than 10% of the total value of production comes from non-livestock farming activities. Landless farming systems are a subset of the pure livestock production systems in which less than 10% of the dry matter fed to animals is farm produced and in which annual average stocking rates are above ten livestock units per hectare of agricultural land (on average at census unit level). Grassland-based systems are defined as systems in which more than 10% of the dry matter fed to animals is farm produced and in which annual average stocking rates are less than ten livestock units per hectare of agricultural land. A distinction is made between: – Temperate zones and tropical highland – Humid/sub-humid tropics and sub-tropics – Arid/semi-arid tropics and sub-tropics. Rain-fed mixed farming systems are mixed systems in which more than 90% of the value of non-livestock farm production comes from rain-fed land use; these systems can be divided into the same agro-ecological sub-classes as given above. Irrigated mixed farming systems are systems in which more than 10% of the value of non-livestock farm production comes from irrigated land use, and again includes the same sub-classes. Meat and dual production systems which is common in the tropical countries can be classified as 1. Extensive (migratory, free range, pasture or range grazing). 2. Semi-intensive (pasture or range grazing, use of supplementary feeding mainly on crop residues and conserved roughage) 3. Intensive (grazing on improved pastures, zero grazing, conserved forage, crop residues and increased use of concentrates). 4. Tethering (small size flocks of 2-10 animals). This is a subsistence family system and the animals live on kitchen remnants crop residues, grazing near inhabited areas and other supplementary feed. Sheep / Goat production systems in the Tropics I. Extensive - Nomadic and transhumant systems 1) Nomadic systems are the most difficult to improve, because they involve continuous movement, not only of the whole flock, but also of all its owners. There is, therefore, no possibility of dividing the flock by age, sex or stage of reproductive cycle, and it is very difficult to provide supplementary feeding. Nomadic flockers know where to find the best pasture and browse, as well as drinking water, at different seasons.  23 These systems have developed primarily in areas of sparse or seasonal grazing, such as arid regions. 2) Typical transhuman system involves the flock spending part of each year grazing within reach of a permanent village base, and the rest of the year on distant pastures, usually in a different ecological zone. The women, children and old people usually stay in the village throughout the year, and may cultivate some crops. Pregnant and newly kidded does could be kept at the village and fed on crop wastes, tree leaves, etc., being controlled either by tethering or housing. Bucks could be similarly controlled, making selective breeding and control of kidding dates possible. II. Semi-intensive - Tethering of goats. Goats are usually tethered singly. Where tethering is used, care must be taken that there is no possibility of strangulation by entanglement with vegetation, etc., or with other goats. Shade must be always available, and drinking water and shelter from rain must be provided when required. It is essential to change the place of tethering every day for obtaining fresh herbage and a variety of different feed plants by the animal. Tethering is an excellent and cheap method. III. Intensive production systems: Intensive production systems involve either grazing on crops or cultivated pastures at a very high stocking density or zero-grazing. The control of goats by fencing is both difficult and expensive. Fences need to be at least 1.5m high and made of strong wire netting, closely placed taut wires, or wooden rails. Goats will find any weakness and push through or jump / climb over. Fencing of large areas is therefore seldom economic but may be justified for intensive grazing of pastures. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Livestock produce and products All the products that we obtain from animal can be divided into the nine categories, out of which the food items are the main ones. It should not be forgotten that traditionally animal facilitate crop production by providing the much needed draft power and fertilizers. Thus livestock contribute all the basic need of man-food (directly or indirectly via agriculture), clothing and recreation. Sl. Item groups Main categories products No 1 Food Meat and offal, blood, milk and dairy products, eggs, fish, shellfish, honey 2 Fibre Wool, hair, silk, feathers 3 Hides Skins(leather), pelt (fur) 4 Fuel Faeces 5 Fertilizer Faeces, urine, blood, bone, hoof and horns 6 Breeding stock Live animal, semen, ova, embryo 7 Power Draught/pact animals 8 Sport/recreation Equestrian sports, bull/ram/cock fight 9 Other items Pearls, shells, horns, hooves In developing countries like India, work/draft should be considered as a very important animal product though its production cannot be expressed in units or money. A huge number of cattle in India is zebu non-descript type used for various agricultural operations and rural transport. The present day worth of power produced by all our draught animals would be around Rs. 15,000 millions. Hence, a relative importance of  24 difference species of livestock and different types of livestock products for India as a whole cannot be neglected. The per capita availability of milk and total production in India are as follows: Milk Production in India Year Production (Million Tonnes) Per Capita Availability (gms/day) 1991-92 55.7 178 1994-95 63.8 194 1999-2000 78.3 217 2004-05 92.5 233 2010-11 121.8 281 2015-16 155.5 337 Value of livestock secrtor (Rs) Item 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 Milk Group 327767 372172 422642 492273 Meat Group 96219 114817 135070 150751 Meat 88469 105656 124766 139051 Beef 11754 14292 15932 19181 Mutton 32667 38880 44178 49065 Pork 4465 4887 5764 6048 Poultry Meat 39583 47596 58893 64758 Meat Products 3346 3973 4508 5088 By-Products 4404 5188 5796 6612 Hides 1887 2210 2432 2921 Skins 1189 1396 1571 1656 Others 1328 1582 1792 2035 Eggs 16633 19658 22815 23961 Wool & hair 496 539 573 567 Dung 32599 37356 41663 44223 Livestock Sector 487751 561109 642566 733054  25 Organic livestock production Organic grassland is the foundation stone of organic livestock farming Considerations for Organic Livestock Production Origin of Livestock Livestock Products from the livestock that are sold, labeled or advertised as organic must be from Livestock that originate from animals that were managed under continuous organic management from the last third of gestation or at hatching. Livestock Feed Livestock that are produced under organic management must have their total ration that is comprised of agricultural products including pasture, forage and crops that are organically produced and handled organically. Urea, chemical fertilizer, mammalian or poultry slaughter by-products are not allowed. A minimum of 60% of ruminants feed should be derived from the holding where animals are kept. Living conditions All farmland including pastures and croplands must be managed organically for a minimum 36 month period before it can qualify for organic certification. An organic livestock producer must create and maintain living conditions that accommodate the natural behavior and health of the animal. The living conditions must include access to outdoors, shade, shelter, fresh air, direct sunlight suitable to the species and access to pasture for ruminants. Waste Management Organic livestock producers are mandated to manage manure so that it does not continue contamination of crops, soil or water and optimizes recycling of nutrients. Health Care Organic livestock production practices require the producer to establish preventive health care practices. The health care practices include selecting the appropriate species and type of livestock, providing adequate feed, create an appropriate environment that minimize stress, disease and parasites. Integrated organic farming – green, clean and ethical concepts The Air, Sunlight, Water, Soil, Plants, Animals and other Living creatures interact and maintain a dynamic balance which is essential for the existence of nature. Interventions of man with his limited knowledge lead to disturbance in this balance. “No cattle without crop and no crop without cattle”. Cattle impart life to soil and this living soil is essential for safe, organic and sustainable agriculture. We heartfully honour and respect the wise farmers who willfully adopt organic farming in agriculture and livestock sector and form the foundation stone of the development of the society. The organic farming, nature farming, farming system without any chemical fertilizers and pesticides, zero budget farming, precision farming and spiritual farming are the common terminologies heard now in the field of agriculture. When we speak about organic farming first thought coming to our mind is “farming in which cow dung, urine, and other organic matter and used and pests are controlled with some biocontrol measures or organic pesticides. Strictly speaking organic farming is one in which the nature is the farmer and man is only a part of the system. Nature has a specific and perfect rhythm in which every component is well arranged. A perfect model of organic farming is seen in an undisturbed forest where nutrients are cycled in a systematic manner. Big trees with its deep root  26 absorb water and nutrients (especially micro nutrients) from deep soil even during summer and bring to the surface and through the fallen leaves they are supplied to the surface soil by decomposition and made available to shallow/fibrous rooted plants. The rain water is imbibed by the organically rich surface soil like a sponge and is retained there for long periods. The water percollated to the deeper soil come bckk to surface during summer by the capillary action. The surface flowing excess water act as a cleansing agent which carry pathogenic organism and kill them when they reach saline sea water and evaporated sea water again reach the soil through rain. Earth worms aerate the soil and bring some nutrients from the deeper layer to the surface layer making available to the surface plants. The most important component in the organic farming is the soil microbes. They assimilate various nutrients from air and make them available to the plants. The plants can utilize various nutrients effectively only with the help of soil microbes. Actually soil microbes give life to the soil. The animal excreta spread here and there act as a culture to the soil augmenting meting the growth and multiplication of soil microbes there by enriching the soil. Natural rhythm is also evident in phenomenons like nest building behavior of birds and honey comb making of honey bees. The secret behind theserhythm is still not fully understood. But the rhythm is essential for the existence of nature. If we critically analyze many of our advanced techniques like grafting, budding, closed precision farming and artificial insemination are not organic strategies as they are not in accordance with natural rhythm and hence they have their own limitations although they improves productivity. In short organic farming is attitude, mindset and lifestyle rather than a farming system in which we share the natural resources just like other organisms giving up our greedy nature. Simple divine life styles obeying the natural principles in full harmony with the nature without inflicting damage to the natural rhythm is the essence of organic farming. A lion hunts only when it is hungry and it shares the excess meat with other animals. But a greedy man hunts all available animals and keeps it in the fridge for his future use which is against natural principles. Lack of sharing and not the lack of resources is the basic reason for poverty. Ethical concepts in organic farming have higher and broader social dimensions. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Animal Housing General principles Selection of site for farm buildings Proper housing which is conducive to good health, comfort and protection from inclement weather and which would enable the animals to utilize their genetic ability and feed for optimum production. For construction of farm buildings selection of site is most important. Before selecting a site the following points are to be considered 1. Type of soil 2. Availability of land 3. Electricity 4. Availability of water 5. Protection from wind & solar radiation 6. Away from noise and other pollution sources 7. Availability of market facility  27 8. Transport facilities 9. Drainage system 10. Miscellaneous like, telephone, school, post office and shopping centre. 1. Type of soil It must be suitable for strong foundation. The different kinds of soil are marshy, clay, alluvial, sandy, and rocky & gravel types. Among these, marshy, clay, sandy & rocky types are not suitable for animal house construction. Loamy & gravel types of soil are suited among which gravel soil is best suited for construction of buildings to get strong foundation. 2. Availability of land There should be sufficient area to construct all buildings and should give way for future expansion. At least 2-3 acres of land is required for 200 cows. Similarly one acre of land is essential for 30-40 sheep or goat. 3. Electricity Ii should be available at the site. It is needed for operating various machines in the farm as well as it is the light source to the animal. 4. Availability of water Plenty of potable (safe for consumption) water is needed for various farm operations like washing, fodder cultivation, processing of milk and other byproducts also for drinking. Hence a water source which provides water constantly and continuously is essential. 5. Protection from wind & solar radiation If farm buildings are situated in open or exposed area, the wind breaks in the form of tall & quickly growing trees should be grown or planted near the building. It will reduce the wind velocity & also reduce the solar radiation. 6. Away from noise & other pollution sources The farm site should be away from noise producing factories, chemical factories and sewage disposing areas. The industrial effluents in the form of gas or liquid may pollute the surrounding resources. Noise is also found to affect animal production. Hence farm should be away from the city. 7. Availability of market facility The farm site should be away from the city, at the same time, it should be easily reachable to city, and thereby the products produced in the farm can be marketed easily. 8. Transport facility The farm buildings should be provided with good road & also have the accessibility to reach the market. This will reduce the transport cost & avoid spoilage of products. 9. Drainage facilities Proper drainage of rain and such-soil water should be provided to give healthy environment and to protect buildings from dampness. 10. Miscellaneous Other facilities like availability of telephone, nearby school for children of farm workers, post office and shopping centre should be available. General principles of planning of farm buildings.  It should be of attractive appearance  It should minimize labour cost  Efficiency of operation should be increased  It should have resale value  28 Structure of a building Eaves - lower edges of the roof which is resting on the supporting wall. Gable - the triangular upper part of a wall formed at the end of roof. Rafters – these are pieces of timber, which extend from eaves to the ridge Purlins – the wooden pieces which are placed horizontally on principle rafters to carry the common rafters. Ridge – the highest part of building is ridge where the two slopes of the roof joints. Span – the horizontal distance between the internal faces of walls or supports. Run – Ralf of span Pitch of a roof – it is the degree of slope to the side of the roof. The pitch of 1/8 to 1/10 is sufficient for roof with metal sheet and a pitch of ¼ is required for thatched or tiled roof. Rise – is the vertical height between the eave to the ridge. Roof pattern Different patterns of roofs are used for animal buildings to suit for the climatic condition and type of roof ventilation. 1. Lean to type roof: - These are simple roof with single slope adopted for shed type of buildings, roof ventilation cannot be provided in this pattern. In this type of roof one wall is higher than the other one to give necessary slope for roof. It is suitable for maximum span of 2-4 m. 2. Gable roof: – These are coupled roof with two slopes. Roof ventilation can be provided in this pattern in the form of continuous ridge opening which is protected. 3. Monitor roof – The roof has two slopes, but one overlaps other at the ridge of the roof with a ventilation gap of one foot. In this roof ventilation can be provided in between two slopes. This type of roof is suitable for tropical buildings & it serves the purposes of ventilation & lighting. Poultry sheds are constructed in this pattern. 4. Semi monitor roof- This roof has two slopes but one overlaps the other at the ridge of roof with ventilation gap of one foot. 5. Gothic arch: This is an arched roof providing grater roof space used for store house. Used for storage of feed & also for pig sheds. Designing animal houses 1. Designing for flexibility Animal buildings have to be designed to meet the requirements of changing enterprises. This will increase the utility of buildings. Spacious buildings without pillars can be easily adopted for different enterprises with little modifications in the building. For example, large intensive dairy buildings can be used for rearing pig or sheep & goat with little modification. 2. Shape of roof It is designed to suit local climatic conditions. Gable with roof ventilators are necessary for hot condition. Monitor roof is suitable for buildings with smaller width. 3. Standard width of buildings 1. Single row cow shed – 3.8 to 4.25 meter 2. Double row cow shed – 7.9 to 8.7 meter 3. Poultry & others – 20-30 feet 4. Standard height of buildings  29 The standard height of building may differ according to the roofing material & agro climatic condition. 5. Length of buildings The standard length of buildings may differ. It depends upon the number of animals. Length can be determined based on the total stock to be housed within the building. eg. In case of dairy farm, 15-20 animals can be housed in single row system, 20- 50 animals in double row system and for above 50 animals, a separate shed should be provided. Arrangement of farm buildings The farm buildings can be grouped into three categories  Farm house/homestead  Farm building/farmstead  Farm store 1. Farm house/homestead Farm houses are residential building meant for the person working in the farm. The farmhouse should never be placed to the leeward side (the side sheltered from wind) of the building but it should be located to the windward side. Attention to this point tends to prevent flies & smell from the manure heap being blown towards the houses. 2. Farm building /farmstead These are meant for housing the livestock. The farm buildings should be kept well away from the farm house and worker’s cottages. But consideration must be given to the distance from being not too far. 3. Farm store Farm store is meant for storage of feed materials & other farm products. Farms should be located in the prominent places most probably at the centre of the farm. The farm manager’s house should be located at the entrance of the farm. All the buildings in the farm should be grouped together for efficient operation. The related enterprises must be grouped together. The major enterprise which needs more attention should be located nearer the farm office. Quarantine shed Quarantine shed should be located at the entrance of the farm, so that new animals purchased from outside may be kept and if they are found to be free from diseases, it can be included in the farm. Isolation shed It should be located away from healthy animal shed. Roofing materials Careful selection of materials is essential in tropical building to prevent the solar radiation. It is preferable to have material with low conductivity of heat. The commonly used roof materials are 1. Tiles 2. Asbestos sheet 3. Aluminum sheet 4. Galvanized iron sheet 5. Thatches. 1. Tiles It is suitable for hot climate but, it has to be renewed periodically.  30 2. Asbestos sheet These are commonly used in animal buildings. Asbestos sheets are prepared by mixing cement mixture with varying quantities of asbestos fibre. These sheets are having corrugated surfaces are more durable than tiles. But the house under this roof will be hotter during summer. On 21 January 2011, the Supreme Court of India banned the usage of Asbestos in India. 3. Aluminium sheets Corrugated aluminium sheets with different thickness & dimensions are available. They are very light and can be easily fixed. They are rust proof and are more durable. 4. Galvanized iron sheets These are corrugated sheets available in standard dimension of 6 feet x 3 feet. This will keep the animal houses very hot during summer and may be rusted after long use. 5. Thatched roof This roof is made of either coconut/palm leaves. Sometimes hay and straw are used as roof coverings. These are cheap and are poor conductors of heat. They keep the houses cool in summer but are non durable and has to be removed yearly or once in two years. They are very prone for fire accidents. Roof lining Wooden board and synthetic vegetable boards can be used as roof lining for tiled roof with galvanized iron sheets to give better insulation. Construction of floor Floor is the one, which is frequently used by animals for various purposes as resting, movement, feeding and milking. So the floor must have all qualities which are required to meet the purpose. It must be strong and durable to withstand the weight of hard roof of the building and movement of hard hoof of the animals. Flooring must facilitate hygienic feeding and effective removal of waste products both liquid and solid. The floor should be laid on solid and compact foundation. It should have a gradient of 1/60 from manger to the rear dung channel. Non slippery quality is needed to avoid accident slipping, especially in case of large animals. Grooves and roughened floors should be provided. Flooring materials The choice of the materials depends on the availability, cost and other qualities required for the animal houses. 1. Cement/concrete floor This is a common floor material used in animal houses. It is cheap and durable if properly constructed. Groove and rough surface are to be provided for preventing accidents. 2. Vitrified paving bricks These are hard impervious bricks with grooves on the surface. It is ideal flooring for animal houses because of durability & damp proof condition. The bricks are set over a cushion of sand. The joints are coated with mortar. 3. Stones Granite stones are used in places where they are easily available. They are made into a block. The floor surface is roughened and is laid over a cushion of sand. It is durable, strong & cheap.  31 4. Wood It keeps the floor warm & comfortable in cold condition. In hill station where timber is cheap, wooden floor is preferable. The planks may be used as solid floor or slatted floor. The slated floors are preferable and they are used for hygienic reasons of breaking contact of animal with excreta. In tropical building it will be useful to provide desirable floor ventilation which facilities maximum cooling of animals in hot conditions. Slatted floor is a common fitting in poultry and rabbit houses. 5. Building bricks They are sometimes used as flooring materials. They absorb water and are easily worm out. 6. Gravel Fine quality gravel can be used as cheap quality flooring materials. It absorbs water and is worn out quickly. Periodical repair and maintenance are required. During disease outbreak disinfection is not possible with this type of flooring. Lime dressing and smearing of cow dung mixture will help in proper maintenance of the floor. Synthetic flooring A. Composition brick It provides a non conducting warm floor, which is necessary in houses of young animals in cold countries. This is good for piggery and calf houses. B. Rubber floor Rubber is used as blocks set on cement blocks or as thick mat with grooves & ridges on the surface. It is costly & fixing is difficult. In western countries thick rubber is used as flooring in dairies and calving boxes to provide a clean, soft and comfortable surface. Design of floor 1. Solid floor It is a common floor with solid surface made of different materials such as cement, vitrified paving brick, building brick, stones & gravel. A slope of 1/40 to 1/60 is desirable towards the dung channel. Even surface with impervious quality is necessary to prevent water stagnation. Proper cleaning & disinfection are essential to control diseases. 2. Slatted floor Floor set with wood on reinforced concrete bars providing a required gap between them and is used in animal houses for intensive animal production. It has the great advantage of controlling disease by breaking the contact between animal’s excreta. The excreta both solid and liquid passes downward from the wooden floor are suitably disposed by mechanical means. The slatted floor is ideal for raising the animals in germ free condition. The distance between two planks (slat) is known as slot and it should be 1 to 1.5 am. The plank width is 7.5 to 10 cm. and thickness is 2.5 – 4 cm. Slatted floor should be raised one meter above the floor level. 3. Wire floor Animal house floors are at present manufactured in the form of thick gauge wire meshes. They can be fixed in a frame and can be used as flooring. It has same advantage as slatted floor and is easy for fixing as floor in poultry houses, rabbit houses and houses for calves. 4. Deep litter floor It is made of bedding material as dried layers. Straw, paddy husk, saw dust or dried leaves are spread on the floor as litter materials. It can be spread in 4-6 thickness  32 and can be allowed to accumulate over a period of a month to one year. The litter gets mixed with excreta and is decomposed. The dried litter material absorbs moisture. Hence bacterial activity is controlled. The litter materials with decomposed excreta may supply B complex vitamin to bird. The B complex vitamins, especially B 12 increases hatchability. Excessive bacterial action in deep litter is kept controlled by addition of lime. Wall materials Bricks 1. Building bricks They are made of 50 % clay and 50 % sand. Rectangular blocks are prepared by molds and are cut by machines. Then they are heated in the klin at proper temperature. Well made machine bricks have standard dimension of 9” x 41/2 ”x 3’’. 2. Vitrified paving bricks These are hard, impervious and durable bricks. They are grooved on outer surface have a strong and hard finish. They are damp proof. 3. Glazed bricks These are small bricks made of china clay and finished with glaze or enamel on outer surface. They are used for providing sanitary finishes on walls and the places where hygienic condition and washable surfaces are necessary. Stones The stones may be dressed into rectangular or square blocks and is used in original shape to give a better finish. 1. Granite These are hard natural stones. They may be black in colour or light grey. They are durable, weather resistant and are commonly used for the construction of walls and floors in animal buildings. The surface should be roughened periodically by chipping. 2. Whin stones They are also hard rocks but not so durable and weather resistant as granites. They are used for wall construction and broken stones are used as a common ingredient of cement concrete. 3. Sand stones These are immature rocks of recent formation. They are not strong and durable are not used in heavy construction. They are capable of being dressed into different shapes and patterns. Hence they are used for architectural works.  33 II. CATTLE AND BUFFALO PRODUCTION Cattle and Buffaloes belong to the family Bovidae in the order Artiodactyla (even- hooved) under the class Mammalia in animals. The domestic cattle today belong to the species of Bos indicus (Humped Cattle) or Bos taurus (Hump-less cattle) or of crosses between the two. The buffaloes belong to the species Bubalus bubalis and there are two types, namely riverine and swamp. The domestic cattle is believed to have evolved from the wild cattle called Aurochs (Bos primigenius), and the buffalo from Asian wild buffalo (Bubalus arnee). The cattle and buffaloes are mainly reared for milk and meat, and farm yard manure and hide are obtained as by-products. In India, cattle and buffaloes are mainly reared as dairy animals (milk producers) and it is mostly of a small holder nature with low productive animals. The dairy animals produce milk by converting the crop residues and by products from agriculture which otherwise would go wasted. Dairy sector also contributes by way of cash income, draught power and manure. It is an integral part of crop production and contributes substantially to the household nutritional security and aid in poverty alleviation. The total livestock population in the country was 512.05 million numbers as per the 19th Livestock Census of 2012 and consisting of Cattle, Buffalo, Sheep, Goat, pig, Horses and Ponies, Mules, Donkeys, Camels, Mithun and Yak. The total livestock population has decreased by about 3.33% over the previous census. Among livestock 37.28% were cattle, 21.23% buffaloes, 12.71% sheep, 26.40% goats and 2.01% pigs. The corresponding figures as per the 18th Livestock Census were 37.58%, 19.89%, 13.50%, 26.53% and 2.10% respectively. The Population of Cattle decreased by 3.14% and buffalo increased by 4.18% in rural areas of India. The percentage change of exotic milch cattle population during 2007-12 has shown an increase of 10% in rural areas as compared to the percentage change during 2003-07. The variations in Indigenous milch cattle population has decreased drastically during 2007-12 as compared to 2003-07. The exotic/crossbred milch cattle increased from 14.4 million to 19.42 million, an increase of 34.78%. The total Buffalo contributes around 21.23% of the total livestock population. The total number of Buffalo in the country as per 2012 Census is 108.7 million numbers. The Female Buffalo population has increased by 7.99% over the previous census and the total number of female buffalo is 92.5 million numbers in 2012. The milch buffaloes increased from 48.64 million to 51.05 million with an increase of 4.95% over previous census. State wise cattle population showed that Madhya Pradesh is having 10.27% of the total cattle population followed by Utter Pradesh (10.24%), West Bengal (8.65%), Maharashtra (8.11%), Rajasthan (6.98%), Bihar (6.41%), Odisha (6.09%), Assam (5.4%), Gujarat (5.23%), Chattisgarh (5.14%), Andhra Pradesh (5.03%), Karnataka (4.98%), Tamil Nadu (4.62%) and Jharkhand (4.57%). Livestock population has increased substantially in Gujarat (15.36%), Uttar Pradesh (14.01%), Assam (10.77%), Punjab (9.57%) Bihar (8.56%), Sikkim (7.96%), Meghalaya (7.41%), and Chhattisgarh (4.34%). Breeds of Cattle Breed can be defined as a sufficiently large group of animals developed by the efforts of man, having a common ancestry and possess similar morphological, physiological and economical characters that are inherited more or less firmly. The Indian breeds of cattle can be broadly classified as milch breeds, draught breeds and dual purpose (general utility) breeds.  34 19TH ALL INDIA QUINQUENNIAL LIVESTOCK CENSUS-2012 (‘000) CATEGORY 2007 2012 % Change Cattle Exotic/Crossbred  Male 6,844 5,971 -12.75  Female 26,216 33,760 28.78 Total Exotic/Crossbred 33,060 39,732 20.18 Indigenous  Male 76,779 61,949 -19.32  Female 89,236 89,224 -0.01 Total Indigenous 1,66,015 1,51,172 -8.94 Total Cattle 1,99,075 1,90,904 -4.10 Buffalo  Male 19,597 16,103 -17.83  Female 85,745 92,599 7.99 Total Buffalo 1,05,342 1,08,702 3.19 Bovine  Male 1,03,385 84,187 -18.57  Female 2,01,379 2,15,794 7.16 Total Bovines 3,04,764 2,99,981 -1.57 Milch breeds In this group the cows are high yielder with milk yield varying from 1500-2500 kg per lactation and bullocks of poor quality work. They are generally ponderous in build with pendulous dewlap and sheath and have lateral or curved horns. The colour is predominantly red with varying colour pattern. Gir Origin : Gir Forests of south Kathiawar in Gujarat Synonyms : Desan, Gujarati, Kathiawari, Sorthi, Surati  35 Basic colour of skin is white with dark red or chocolate-bro