Ancient History Notes .docx

ANCIENT HISTORY NOTES The Treatment and Display of Human Remains ------------------------------------------ Students investigate Specifically : bog bodies +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - the condition of the human | Bog Bodies are bodies found i...

ANCIENT HISTORY NOTES The Treatment and Display of Human Remains ------------------------------------------ Students investigate Specifically : bog bodies +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - the condition of the human | Bog Bodies are bodies found in | | remains and how they were | acidic raised bogs which have a | | preserved, discovered and/or | conserving effect on material | | removed from where they were | containing keratin (skin, hair, | | found (ACHAH030) Aboriginal | nails etc.) As well as internal | | and Torres Strait Islander | organs, the acidic environment | | histories and cultures icon | helps to slow down the | |  | integral part of the fen | | | vegetation, sphagnum bog moss. | | | | | | While this moss is alive it grows | | | on top of layers of decomposing | | | moss and is composed of 80% | | | water, and while it decays | | | produces polysacchraride, and | | | sphagnan. These do two things: | | | | | | 1. releases a humic acid that | | | removes calcium in the | | | organic remains and preserves | | | their skin | | | | | | 2. sphagnan halts the decay of | | | organic remains | | | | | | The water acidity in the bog is | | | increased by the antibiotics and | | | hydrogen ions excreted by the | | | sphagnan moss | | | | | | This acidic environment creates | | | the perfect conditions to | | | naturally mummify human remains | | | | | | Bog bodies most commonly | | | discovered by accident can be | | | dated back to the Iron Age and | | | commonly found in Ireland, | | | Denmark and Germany. | | | | | | Peat cutting is what lead to the | | | discovery of the bog bodies, when | | | industrial peat cutting with | | | machinal tools became more | | | popular, more bog bodies were | | | found, often becoming caught in | | | the machine parts | | | | | | 1. When bodies are found the | | | first thing to happen is the | | | local Gardai is called in | | | case the body is a missing | | | person (bogs can be used to | | | hide recent murders) | | | | | | 2. Forensic pathologist and the | | | NMI Bog Body Research Team | | | are called to determine the | | | approx. age of the remains | | | | | | 3. If they are over 100 years | | | old the jurisdiction over the | | | remains falls under the NMI | | | as the national conservator ( | | | this is the process the NMI | | | team use) | | | | | | - Conduct non-destructive | | | anatomical and pathological | | | exams | | | | | | - Imaging with CD scans MRI'S | | | AND FRX | | | | | | - Take samples for radio | | | carbon, paleo and | | | dermatological | | | | | | - Begin conservation process | +===================================+===================================+ | - the significance of the human | Common in the Iron Age, Celtic | | remains and other sources, | people had a large culture around | | for example written, for an | Kingship, a king was the person | | understanding of the life and | that was the communicator to the | | times in which they lived, | Gods. | | including: | | | | 'the sacred link between the king | | | and the deity of the land meant | | | that the king was held | | | responsible for appeasing the | | | god/goddess" | | | | | | A good Kingship was reflected in | | | nature, the harvest, if a good | | | harvest and fertility did not | | | come the King was held | | | responsible and sacrificed to | | | appease the goddess, before a new | | | king was found. | | | | | | There were 3 killing methods | | | | | | - hanging or strangulation | | | | | | - drowning or poisoning | | | | | | - death by wounding- by axe, | | | sword, or bludgeon | | | | | | it is unsure whether these deaths | | | occurred next to the bogs, but is | | | commonly believed the bodies were | | | placed in the bogs as the bogs | | | were considered to be a gateway | | | to the Other World. | | | | | | Ancient Irish viewed bog lands as | | | liminal spaces, a boundary | | | between the physical and Other | | | World. However it also served as | | | markers for the kingdoms and have | | | territorial boundaries- this was | | | powerful to the celts and showed | | | their strong connection to the | | | natural world and their society | | | beliefs and practices | | | | | | **Significance of Human Remains | | | -- from booklet Sir gave us** | | | | | | - bog bodies allow us to | | | rediscover history- | | | reconstruction of the past | | | | | | - Iron Age Celtic bog bodies: | | | provide a cohesive Irish | | | identity unbounded by | | | temporal or spatial strains | | | | | | - The power of history is used | | | to create a cohesive national | | | identity | | | | | | - By being able to identity who | | | these bodies are and their | | | stories, the Irish can find | | | civic engagement with the | | | cultural heritage of the | | | national identity | | | | | | **Significance** | | | | | | **Old Croghan Man** | | | | | | - Celtic man living in Ireland | | | during the Iron Age, over | | | 2300 years ago | | | | | | - Tall | | | | | | - Early twenties when he died | | | | | | - Bog body found near Crohan | | | Hill in Ireland (hence his | | | name) | | | | | | - Human sacrificial was an | | | accepted part of his culture | | | | | | - Believed he was King, and was | | | sacrificed by his people in | | | response bad weather and poor | | | harvest. In the hopes that | | | his death would improve their | | | circumstances | | | | | | - During this time Bogs were | | | seen as boundary spaces, the | | | King's authority ended and he | | | was under the rule of the | | | goddess of the wilderness | | | | | | - If he was a king, he would | | | have symbolically married | | | this land goddess during his | | | coronation (on top of a hill) | | | | | | - His marriage would have given | | | him power over the natural | | | world in which his culture | | | relied on for survival | | | | | | - He most likely knew the fate | | | that awaited him -- he also | | | could have gone to his death | | | willing | | | | | | - He would have eaten a | | | symbolic last meal | | | | | | - However a wound was found on | | | his arm- this could mean he | | | tried to defend himself: but | | | we will never really know \\ | | | | | | - He is believed to be off | | | elite status due to his | | | height, and well manicured | | | hands | | | | | | - He was found with a braided | | | leather armband- is thought | | | to represent the sun, which | | | is associated with Kingship | | | in Ireland | | | | | | - Chemical analysis performed | | | on his nails found he | | | consumed meat regularly for | | | at least 4 months before his | | | death- this would have been a | | | luxury | | | | | | - Suffered a violent death- it | | | is though he was decapitated | | | and cut in half- has stab | | | wounds on his chest and neck | | | | | | - Nipples were sliced off- | | | additional evidence to | | | support he was a king ( | | | during this time a kings | | | nipples symbolised | | | life-giving sun, and that | | | sucking on a king's nipples | | | was a sign of submission, so | | | therefore the act of slicing | | | a kings nipple would be | | | regarded as a means of | | | ritually decommissioning a | | | king | | | | | | - Speculated he was sacrificed | | | by a fertility goddess who | | | had 3 natures- to appease her | | | natures he had to die 3 times | | | (strangulation, stabbing, and | | | drowning) | | | | | | - He was placed on the border | | | of tribal boundaries | | | | | | **Yde Girl** | | | | | | - Found in the Netherlands | | | | | | - She had long red hair | | | | | | - Was covered in a woollen | | | cloak | | | | | | - Braided band of material | | | wrapped around her neck 3 | | | times | | | | | | - Stab wounds near her | | | collarbone | | | | | | - Believed she was executed or | | | sacrificed | | | | | | - Carbon dating suggest she | | | lived between 54BC and 123AD- | | | so she died in the 1^st^ | | | century | | | | | | - CT scans suggest she died | | | when she was 16 | | | | | | - She was found with red hair | | | -- however scientist believe | | | this was caused by the | | | chemicals in the bog and she | | | was actually blonde | | | | | | - She was very short under 5ft | | | and she had scoliosis | | | | | | - Lived during the Celtic era- | | | human sacrifice was featured | | | in their religious practices | | | | | | - Disabled people were often | | | chosen, due to her scoliosis | | | her mobility would have been | | | affected, its very likely her | | | tribe saw her as a burden | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ Investigating Ancient History -- Case Studies- DEIR EL MEDINA ------------------------------------------------------------- Students investigate +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - | There are two types of tombs in | | | the Valley of the kings: | | | | | | 1. free standing and rock cut | | | tombs: both had an above area | | | ground public area and below | | | ground a private area | | | | | | 2. rock cut tombs were cutting | | | into the hillside, to create | | | a tomb within the rock itself | | | | | | 3. tombs were made of both | | | mud-brick and stone | | | | | | construction of royal tombs: | | | | | | - the tomb workers had a map of | | | the valley and searched it to | | | find untouched sites | | | | | | - architects would avoid | | | repeating the mistake they | | | made with Ramses III's tomb: | | | it had been cut into the | | | corridor of another tomb and | | | the workers had to change the | | | direction of their digging | | | and therefore disturbed the | | | peace of another person's | | | afterlife | | | | | | - archaeological evidence is | | | what has taught us about the | | | tomb building process | | | | | | - workers used plans and | | | sketches have been found on | | | ostraca or papyri | | | | | | - royal tombs were the most | | | remarkable, and beautiful | | | tombs | | | | | | - constructed into cliffs of | | | limestone and use chipped | | | rocks to paint and decorate | | | the tomb walls- with images | | | and stories of their life and | | | journey to the after life | | | | | | - designs changed with time- | | | providing us with evidence of | | | evolution of craftsmanship | | | and royal important | | | | | | - the left gang crafted their | | | own techniques differing | | | tombs | | | | | | Thutmose III (transformed Egypt | | | into an empire, a great warrior, | | | military commander and | | | strategist) | | | | | | - one of the most sophisticated | | | tombs in the valley of the | | | kings | | | | | | - discovered in 1898 | | | | | | - it is located at a narrow | | | gorge at the bottom of the | | | valley | | | | | | - the entrance is 30 metres | | | above ground level: this did | | | not stop ancient tomb | | | robbers- they tore apart the | | | chambers, this suggest the | | | robbers weren't from the | | | village or they did not | | | respect Thutmose III | | | | | | - the tomb is sophisticated due | | | to the construction of the | | | tomb | | | | | | - the hieroglyphs, painted as a | | | guidebook to the underworld | | | was rushed: it showed | | | mistakes | | | | | | - there are rough paintings on | | | the wall, the Book of the | | | Secret Room was painted on | | | the wall to like a massive | | | piece of papyrus sheet in | | | black ink not colour | | | | | | - the tomb showed early | | | examples of tombs in the area | | | and showed the techniques of | | | the workers at the time | | | | | | - the chamber had two pillars | | | and decorated with 741 | | | divinities od the Amduat that | | | generate the daily sun | | | | | | - a flight of stairs leads | | | directly from there to the | | | burial chamber | | | | | | - the oval chamber is common | | | and large it holds beautiful | | | red quartzite sarcophagus | | | | | | - his mummy was not found here | | | but rather in another tomb | | | | | | - the walls of the chamber are | | | designed to look like a huge | | | ornamental scroll with the | | | complete text of the Book of | | | Amduat. The ancient Egyptians | | | called this book the \"Book | | | of the Secret Room\". Amduat | | | meant \"that which there is | | | in the afterlife\", and the | | | book is divided into twelve | | | parts, representing the hours | | | of the night | | | | | | - On the two square pillars of | | | the burial chamber, passages | | | from the Litanies of Re on | | | seven of the surfaces, and on | | | the eighth a unique scene in | | | which the king is shown being | | | nursed by a divine tree | | | goddess labeled \"Isis\". It | | | is likely, however, that | | | these pillar decorations were | | | added hastily, after the | | | king\'s death | | | | | | | | | | | | - The new kingdom royal tombs | | | contained passageways leading | | | to the burial chamber, | | | containing the sarcophagus | | | for the mummy | | | | | | - Seti I had the most | | | significant tomb- he had 6 | | | significantly long | | | passageways, filled with side | | | chambers filled with scenes | | | from the Amduat and scenes | | | from past kings | | | | | | - He is one of the most | | | excellently preserved | | | mummy's: regarded as the | | | finest example to Egyptian | | | mummification | | | | | | Non- Royal Tombs | | | | | | - The tombs of the workers were | | | deigned to be used | | | | | | - They provided a resting place | | | for the body, a house for the | | | spirit of the dead and | | | visiting place for the family | | | | | | - They were significantly | | | different to the royal tombs: | | | size, construction, contents, | | | foundation rituals and even | | | religious rituals were all | | | different | | | | | | - They were constructed in | | | comparison to the persons | | | wealth, if you could afford a | | | larger tomb or anything extra | | | it was possible to get this. | | | Unless you were a noble of | | | the society | | | | | | - The size was usually small, | | | and basic decorations, | | | alongside only necessary | | | contents buried alongside the | | | deceased | | | | | | - Many non-royal tombs were | | | also very extravagant- | | | telling us many people were | | | wealthy, respected and had | | | significant roles in society | | | | | | - Respected men instructed his | | | workmen to work on this won | | | tombs during off days as a | | | form of unofficial work | | | | | | - Many worker had talents so | | | different tombs are filled | | | with unique talent | | | | | | Tomb of Sennedjem | | | | | | Tomb of Kha and Meryt | +===================================+===================================+ | - | - The Deir El Medina workers | | | strike was the first strike | | | in history | | | | | | - It was a time of serious | | | political and economic | | | difficulties | | | | | | - Workers received many forms | | | of compensation however their | | | pays kept being late | | | | | | - Workers were waiting up to 20 | | | days to get their pay rations | | | | | | - Workers decided to strike and | | | gathered near temples but | | | were told their issues needed | | | to go to the pharaoh and they | | | needed to leave | | | | | | - The next day they did the | | | same thing, they were given | | | cake to try and bribe and get | | | them away from the Pharaoh | | | | | | - This was an attempt to | | | appease them however it did | | | not work- the workers | | | continued going to the | | | temples- however they | | | eventually started to enter | | | the temples in protest | | | | | | - They were then granted their | | | rations- however the strikers | | | were still owed rations from | | | the previous months that had | | | been missed | | | | | | - The strikes continued and | | | they rejected the | | | half-hearted tactics from | | | administrators | | | | | | - Eventually an overseer of the | | | Pharaoh came to see them and | | | wrote a letter on behalf of | | | them to him | | | | | | - They eventually got back paid | | | for the rations they missed, | | | however the next month the | | | same things occurred | | | | | | - The next strike the workers | | | went into the village and | | | threatened to violate the | | | tombs- this was the biggest | | | violation a tomb worker could | | | make | | | | | | - The Vizer finally admitted | | | they were unable to deliver | | | the rations due to the state | | | granaries being empty- but he | | | would give them anything he | | | could find | | | | | | - Workers were still unhappy so | | | they went back to the temples | | | and shouted abuse at the | | | Governor of Thebes- they then | | | registered a complaint with | | | the Cjeif Priest of Amun | | | | | | - These strikes and ration | | | troubles continued to the end | | | of Ramses III reign | | | | | | *Scribe Neferhotep around | | | Ramesses 25th year states 'One | | | and a half khar of grain (about | | | 168lbs) have been taken from | | | us...we are dying, we cannot | | | live..." expressed the concerns | | | and desperation of the workmen, | | | arising dispute amongst the | | | community.. One and a half | | | hundredweight of grain has been | | | taken away from us...\[i.e. is | | | missing from the ration\]... | | | make for us a means of keeping | | | alive... we are dying, we do not | | | live at all"- J. Romer, Ancient | | | Lives: The Story of the Pharaohs' | | | Tombmakers, Book Club Associates, | | | 1984, pg. 116.* | | | | | | The strikes were an indication of | | | the economic crisis Egypt was in- | | | affecting even the privileged | | | workers | | | | | | Tomb Robberies | | | | | | - Tomb robberies had always | | | occurred due to the rich | | | goods buried with the dead | | | for the use of royalty in the | | | afterlife | | | | | | However tomb robberies in the | | | 20^th^ dynasty were unique | | | | | | - They were aimed at tombs in | | | western Thebes | | | | | | - They were extensively | | | documented : " the tomb | | | robbery papyri" which were | | | prepared for judicial | | | investigations and included | | | what social class the robbers | | | came from | | | | | | - These revealed the lack of | | | security in the west bank | | | since the days of the strikes | | | | | | - Bands of foreigners (Libyans) | | | put fear into the locals + | | | gave the tomb workers an | | | excuse to not come to work | | | | | | - Revealed serious corruption | | | among the Theban | | | administration | | | | | | - Rivalry's against officials | | | and their part in the | | | robberies | | | | | | - Scandal occurred in years | | | 16/17 between the Pasor the | | | governor of Thebes and Pawero | | | the governor of the west bank | | | as well as the chief Medjay | | | blaming robberies on each | | | others workers to embarrass | | | them | | | | | | Descripetion of the robbers | | | | | | - Middle/lower class | | | | | | - Artisans useful skills- | | | quarryman, carpenters | | | | | | - People both side of the river | | | in significant institutions | | | and departments | | | | | | - Bands of men united by | | | family/profession | | | | | | - The Deir el Medina workers | | | tuned a blind eye to | | | compromise security | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - | \- upper class women were 'male | | | ideals' | | | | | | \- depicted as young/ beautiful | | | in literature paintings and | | | sculptures | | | | | | \- shown in relationships to | | | fathers, sons, and husbands- they | | | were supportive by subordinate | | | roles | | | | | | \- in theory all women of all | | | classes were equal to men in the | | | eyes of the law | | | | | | Women could: | | | | | | - inherit, purchase, lease, and | | | sell property | | | | | | - hire/buy slaves | | | | | | - make legal contracts | | | | | | - go to court as defendants and | | | give evidence | | | | | | - live alone | | | | | | - retain her property if | | | divorced | | | | | | - claim a share of any joint | | | property- unless adultery | | | occurred | | | | | | Married women | | | | | | - respected more then unmarried | | | women | | | | | | - 1 marriage partner although | | | some remarried after the | | | death of their first husband | | | | | | - Evidence of adultery is not | | | common | | | | | | - Her status increased with | | | motherhood- the more children | | | she had the greater standing | | | she had in the community | | | | | | - Families were large 8-15 | | | members (many young children | | | died during early infancy) | | | | | | - After motherhood their main | | | duty was looking after the | | | home | | | | | | - They had help through slaves | | | and regular laundry services | | | | | | - They spent a lot of their | | | time on government issues | | | | | | - Made clothes by spinning, | | | weaving and dress making | | | | | | - Bartering with their skills | | | for extra goods | | | | | | However: | | | | | | - The women were expected to be | | | obedient and fullfil her | | | duties | | | | | | - The 'better' the wife was the | | | more the husband was | | | encouraged to treat her | | | fairly | | | | | | Unmarried women: | | | | | | - Seen very differently to | | | married women- usually seen | | | ad nude dancers | | | | | | - A tattoo on the women's thigh | | | of Bes, dwarf god of female | | | sexuality and fertility, some | | | scholars believe the tattoo | | | was to depict that the woman | | | was a prostitute \*fig 8.1\*\ | | | \ | | | These depictions of women can | | | tell us more about the ideal | | | woman in the eyes of the man | | | during that time, as these | | | artworks were meant to be | | | sexually | | | appeal | | | ing | | | to men.\ | | | \ | | | **Source 8.1** '*Beware of a | | | women who is a stranger, one | | | not known in her own town. Do | | | not stare at her when she | | | goes by, do not sleep with | | | her \[She is\] deep water | | | whose direction is unknown, | | | such is a women away from her | | | husband, 'I am pretty she | | | tells daily', when she has no | | | witness; She is ready to trap | | | you, a great deadly | | | crime\...*   | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - | Housing and furniture: | | | | | | - common items included chairs, | | | stools, beds, and chest | | | | | | - all people had furniture -- | | | it was what it was made out | | | of that showed your social | | | class -- only the rich could | | | afford imported timbers | | | | | | - housing was small , with | | | shared walls | | | | | | - houses were built in a | | | compact way- shows the | | | skilled craftsmanship in Deir | | | el Medina | | | | | | Food: | | | | | | - their main diet consisted of | | | bread, onions, grains and | | | beer | | | | | | - wage slips were monthly | | | rations of emmer wheat flour | | | and barley for making beer | | | | | | - salts, oils, spices, and | | | meats were included as | | | bonusses ( they were seen as | | | luxuries ) | | | | | | - vegetables and fish came from | | | suppliers outside of the | | | village | | | | | | - everyone had a good diet and | | | a wide range of vegetables | | | and fish due to the location | | | and the Nile | | | | | | - baked their own bread | | | | | | Leisure: | | | | | | - hunting | | | | | | - fishing | | | | | | - athletics | | | | | | - archery | | | | | | - boxing | | | | | | - wrestling | | | | | | - sword fighting | | | | | | - all members of the community | | | were allowed to participate | | | however it was not fit that | | | women would participate in | | | these | | | | | | Clothing: | | | | | | Clothing that was warn was an | | | indication of the persons status | | | in median society, as only the | | | rich could afford the best.  The | | | common clothing of that time was | | | linen. In many artworks portrays | | | men working in the fields with no | | | shirt but only linen sheet | | | wrapped around their waste , this | | | wasn't because these workers were | | | of lower class but because these | | | men looked to keep their best | | | clothing  for their journey in | | | the afterlife. Animal skin was | | | usually worn by the priests and | | | pharaohs as first servant of the | | | Gods. In constructing these linen | | | pieces of clothing the Egyptians | | | used needles that were fashioned | | | from wood, bone and metal. | | | Fashion was always kept simple a | | | short loin cloth resembling a | | | kilt for men and a dress with | | | straps for women, very little | | | sewing was don't the garments | | | were wrapped around the body with | | | a belt it hold it on place.     | | | | | | Jewellery:\ | | | The people of Deir el Medina used | | | Jewellery for two main purposes, | | | those being fashion and Religious | | | purposes. It was use to depict | | | status, for example the pharaoh | | | was seen to be showered in gold, | | | not just because it was a sign of | | | his power but also for religious | | | purposes as a lot of amulets and | | | religious equipment were made of | | | Gold. This was evident in the | | | artwork and the pharaoh's tombs | | | being dressed in gold. Workmen | | | and commoners also wore jewellery | | | however they were made of less | | | expensive material like plaster | | | or stone.    2\` | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - | **Religious Beliefs** | | | | | | Stelae dedicated to the deceased | | | relatives | | | | | | As in other towns of the New | | | Kingdom, median workers | | | worshipped many gods and | | | goddesses. The major god of this | | | period was Amun-Re of Thebes, | | | whose cult centre was the Temple | | | of Karnak across the Nile on the | | | eastern bank of Thebes. In | | | addition to honouring the pharaoh | | | Amenhotep I and his mother | | | Ahmose-Nefertari, as founders of | | | the village, the people of Deir | | | el-Medina also worshipped many | | | other deities. The most important | | | were honoured in special | | | festivals held during the year. | | | Shrines and temples were built | | | erected with stelae (slab of | | | stone with an inscribed surface) | | | and statues to honour them. | | | According to John | | | Romer's *'Ancient Lives,'* "each | | | temple belonged to a god and had | | | its own festival". Indicated by | | | archaeological evidence, | | | villagers practiced ancestor | | | worship in memory of the deceased | | | relatives. Some of the many gods | | | and goddesses the villagers | | | worshipped are:\ | | | \ | | | Ø  Amun-Re- King of the gods\ | | | \ | | | Ø  Osiris- god of the underworld\ | | | \ | | | Ø  Isis- Queen of the gods\ | | | \ | | | Ø  Meretseger- Guardian of the | | | Valley of the Kings\ | | | \ | | | Ø  Ptah- creator\ | | | \ | | | Ø  Hathor- goddess of love and | | | fertility\ | | | \ | | | Ø  Min- god of fertility\ | | | \ | | | Ø  Khnum- god of rebirth, | | | creation and the evening Sun\ | | | \ | | | Ø  Bes- protector of childbirth | | | and demons\ | | | \ | | | Ø  Taweret- goddess of birth\ | | | \ | | | Ø  Shed- saviour of the New | | | Kingdom\ | | | \ | | | Ø  Ra- sun god\ | | | \ | | | Ø  Qudshu- goddess of ecstasy and | | | sexual pleasure\ | | | \ | | | Ø  Anat- Mother of gods\ | | | \ | | | Astarte- warrior goddess of | | | Canaan  | | | | | | **Personal Piety** | | | | | | Figure 10.1 | | | A workman of Bai praying to his | | | god 'of many ears'. | | | | | | Religious belief and observance | | | was very significant in the lives | | | of New Kingdom Egyptians and Deir | | | el-Medina people. They believed | | | that the gods played an important | | | role in human affairs and that | | | they could have a personal | | | relationship (personal piety) | | | with their gods. For example, | | | based on the ethical belief with | | | Amun, if you "placed the god in | | | your heart then he would become a | | | personal god of your life" (J. | | | Assmann, *The Search for God in | | | Ancient Egypt*, Cornell | | | University Press, 2001, p. 197).\ | | | \ | | | Villagers of Deir el-Medina would | | | approach the god with questions | | | about possible outcomes of their | | | plans or to resolve a dispute | | | with another villager. These | | | questions were usually spoken or | | | in written form during festival | | | days such as **Opet** or | | | the **Beautiful Festival of the | | | Valley. **The priest during the | | | festival would tilt the statue of | | | the god in a certain direction to | | | indicate the god's answer. This | | | answer is called | | | an **oracle.** Magical practices | | | had an important religious | | | dimension of the New Kingdom, as | | | the villagers believed | | | that **spells, charms, amulets, | | | prescriptions and rituals** could | | | be used to invoke the power of a | | | god. Amun was well known as a god | | | 'who listened to prayers'. He was | | | often portrayed on stelae as a | | | pair of ears (see Figure 10.1). | | | | | | **Magic** | | | | | | The Deir el-Medinians believed | | | that the gods often | | | used **magic.** For example the | | | goddess Isis was a great | | | magician. She wanted the power | | | that came from knowing the secret | | | name of Ra, the sun god. Ra's | | | secret name was what gave him | | | power. Isis made a snake that bit | | | Ra on the ankle. Isis would not | | | use her magic to heal him until | | | Ra gave up his secret name, which | | | in great agony whispered his | | | secret name. The villagers also | | | believed that the boat of Ra made | | | a dangerous journey through the | | | underworld, being attacked by | | | demons. Most powerful magic was | | | needed to overcome these dangers | | | so that Ra would rise again into | | | the heavens the next morning. | | | Many gods including Heka, god of | | | magic, always accompanied Ra.\ | | | \ | | | Evidence suggests that all | | | Medinians knew these stories. | | | They believed their gods used | | | magic power to deal with their | | | enemies, overcome evil, heal the | | | sick or just get what they | | | wanted. As a result, the people | | | had many spells, magic sayings | | | that they could speak or write | | | down and many magic actions they | | | could perform.\ | | | **\ | | | [Magic for | | | healing]**\ | | | **\ | | | **The spell 'a true killer of the | | | poison' was used when a sick | | | person had snakebite. When the | | | victim licked the snakebite, the | | | gods' magical powers went into | | | the body to fight the venom. To | | | compete the spell, the sick | | | person would swallow crushed | | | herbs mixed with beer or wine.\ | | | \ | | | **[Magic in the | | | tomb]**\ | | | \ | | | Every religious ceremony included | | | magic spells and actions. In tomb | | | chapels, the relatives of the | | | deceased would offer food and | | | drink to the dead person's Ka | | | (spirit that would live on in the | | | tomb and had the same needs as | | | the tomb owner had). They would | | | also chant a spell, which kept | | | the Ka well provided. Scenes on | | | the walls, as shown in figure | | | 10.2 shows the tomb owner | | | surrounded by food and drink and | | | servants bringing everything the | | | Ka might need.\ | | | \ | | | **[Magic against the | | | dead]**\ | | | **\ | | | **The villagers of Medina lived | | | in a society where death was | | | accustomed. The villagers were | | | afraid of death because they | | | thought the dead would destroy | | | the fish in the sea, seeds in the | | | soil and animals in the desert. | | | To protect themselves they had | | | spells that could be said to | | | Osiris who was the lord of the | | | underworld. Only he could stop | | | the dead from harming the living. | | | Although the dead in a way did | | | help the living. Dead relatives | | | known as 'able spirit of Ra' were | | | shown on stelae and prayed to in | | | the homes of the living (refer to | | | figure 10.3). | | | | | | +--------------+--------------+ | | | | Picture |  | | | | | Offerings to | | | | | | the Ka | Figure 10.3 | | | | | including | An offering | | | | | food and | to an able | | | | | drink | spirit of Ra | | | | +--------------+--------------+ | | | | | | **Amulets** | | | | | | **[Amulets]**\ | | | \ | | | All the Median villagers wore | | | amulets, ornaments with special | | | magical powers to protect the | | | wearer. Three most popular ones | | | were:\ | | | \ | | | 1.     Ankh- symbol of life\ | | | \ | | | 2.     Djed Pillar- symbol of the | | | god Osiris\ | | | \ | | | 3.     Wedjat- left eye of the | | | falcon god Horus | | | | | | +---------+---------+---------+ | | | | Picture |  | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 2. | | | | | +---------+---------+---------+ | | | | | | Figu | | | re | | | 10.4 The Final Judgment | | | prescribed with the magic words: | | | "O my heart do not betray me." | | | | | | Even the dead needed amulets. | | | Every dead person would face a | | | final judgment by the gods to see | | | whether they could enter the | | | afterlife. In this trial their | | | heart was weighed against the | | | Feather of Truth (Maat).  A heart | | | scarab amulet would be wrapped in | | | the mummy's bandages, shaped like | | | a beetle. By having this | | | villagers hoped that they would | | | be pushed through their trial to | | | a good life after death. The | | | amulet had the magical power of | | | lifting the heart to make it | | | lighter on the judgment scales. | | | (Refer to figure 10.4).  | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ Boudicca -------- Boudicca (15 marker) account for the representations of Boudica overtime +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - representations of Boudicca | | +===================================+===================================+ | the works of Tacitus and Cassius | Written Sources | | Dio -- reasons for the revolt, | | | Boudicca, Trinovantes and other | Boudicca's story is based on | | Celts, descriptions of Boudicca | three main written sources from | | | the ancient world, two by Tacitus | | | and by Cassius Dio. Tacitus, | | | Agricola A Roman senator and | | | historian wrote a monograph (text | | | on specific topic) on his | | | father-in-law, Agricola. Agricola | | | was a soldier in Britain during | | | the time of Boudicca's revolt who | | | eventually became governor. There | | | is no firm evidence that Agricola | | | actually fought against Boudicca, | | | but he was in the country at the | | | time of her revolt. In Agricola | | | Tacitus presents reasons for | | | Britons' discontent with Roman | | | rule but mentions Boudicca's | | | revolt only briefly. | | | | | | Tacitus, Annals | | | | | | A more extended account of the | | | revolt is given in Annals, a | | | history of the Roman Empire | | | written about 50 years after | | | Boudicca's revolt. As a senator, | | | he could have consulted a wide | | | range of official documents and | | | military reports held in the | | | imperial archives, and possibly | | | private sources which no longer | | | exist. There are no | | | acknowledgements of possible | | | eyewitness | | | | | | interviews. | | | | | | Cassius Dio, History of Rome | | | | | | Dio Cassius was born one hundred | | | years after Boudicca's revolt, | | | who was a Roman senator and | | | historian. He had access to a | | | similar range of written sources | | | available to Tacitus, and he was | | | able to read Tacitus' works. Only | | | parts of Dio's history have | | | survived including his account | | | | | | of Boudicca's revolt. | | | | | | - Believed he wasn't describing | | | her but rather common ideas | | | held of what Celtic women | | | looked like and used | | | stereotypes and myths | | | | | | Biases | | | | | | - each found their information | | | through different material | | | | | | - regarded the ancient Britons | | | as "barbarians" | | | | | | - viewed themselves as | | | culturally superior | | | | | | - saw the place of women in | | | society quite differently | | | from the Britons and | | | therefore displayed "gender | | | bias" | | | | | | - their depictions of Boudicca | | | are completely different | | | | | | - they give different reasoning | | | for the revolt as well her | | | death | | | | | | - the account of Boudicca and | | | her revolt are presented in | | | speeches (in ancient Greek | | | and Roman times were not what | | | a person actually said, but | | | what the writer thought they | | | should or would have said. If | | | these speeches are removed | | | from both Historians accounts | | | there is very little detail | | | about Boudicca | | | | | | - | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ Palmyra and the silk road ------------------------- +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - | The silk road describes the | | | network of trade routes that | | | stretched from chine in the east, | | | across central Asia and on to the | | | Mediterranean | | | | | | Sea routes were also used for | | | transpiotring goods between the | | | east and west | | | | | | Goods carried: | | | | | | - textiles | | | | | | - spices | | | | | | - grains | | | | | | - animal hides | | | | | | - metal work | | | | | | - wood work | | | | | | - art work | | | | | | hazards: | | | | | | - the terrain: high mountains | | | ranges, deserts and rivers | | | | | | - robbers | | | | |