Ancient Greece Study Guide PDF

Ancient Greek Warfare: - Pre-Persian War: Independent city-states resulted in frequent but small-scale conflicts. No professional armies; citizen-soldiers fought, and campaigns were seasonal. - Post-Persian War: Larger alliances emerged to combat massive Persian forces. Strat...

Ancient Greek Warfare: - Pre-Persian War: Independent city-states resulted in frequent but small-scale conflicts. No professional armies; citizen-soldiers fought, and campaigns were seasonal. - Post-Persian War: Larger alliances emerged to combat massive Persian forces. Strategies shifted to include attrition, naval warfare, and sieges. Greek Military Innovations - Hoplites: Elite foot soldiers equipped with heavy armor and weapons. - Phalanx Formation: Soldiers stood shoulder to shoulder, relying on unity and discipline. Success depended on training, bravery, and trust. - Triremes: Fast and maneuverable warships with bronze rams. Used tactics of ramming enemy vessels and retreating quickly. Cultural and Historical Impacts The Phalanx emphasized collective effort over individual heroics, redefining the concept of heroism from aristocrats to disciplined soldiers. Wealth disparities influenced who could serve as a hoplite due to the cost of armor. Innovations in warfare like the phalanx and triremes helped repel invasions but also contributed to the Greek legacy in mercenary services and later Roman conquest. Philosophical Reflection Can humanity achieve a future without war? Exploring ancient Greek conflicts reveals how cultural, economic, and strategic factors drive warfare. Reflecting on past lessons might guide us toward peace. Herodotus, often called the "Father of History," wrote extensively about the wars in The Histories. His accounts blend fact with narrative embellishments due to reliance on second hand sources. Causes: The Ionian Revolt (499–494 BCE): Greek city-states in Asia Minor rebelled against Persian rule, with Athens and Eretria offering limited aid. Persia's response to this rebellion set the stage for conflict. Key Battles Battle of Marathon (490 BCE): Athenian forces (9,000 soldiers) defeated a much larger Persian army (20,000 soldiers) using tactical formations, particularly by strengthening their flanks. - Legacy: Highlighted democracy's role, as Athenian citizens chose to fight voluntarily. - Pheidippides' Run: Inspired the modern marathon, symbolizing endurance and determination. Battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE): Led by Spartan King Leonidas, a small Greek force of about 7,000 (including 300 Spartans) heroically resisted the vast Persian army. Betrayed by a Greek traitor, the Spartans fought to their last man, leaving an enduring legacy of courage and sacrifice. Lessons and Significance Unity: The wars unified otherwise fractious Greek city-states against a common enemy, though rivalries resurfaced post-war. Evolution of Warfare: Shift from small-scale skirmishes to total war involving mass invasions and attritional strategies. Cultural Impact: Victory bolstered Greek identity, democracy, and the belief in the superiority of their way of life. The Aftermath Delian League: Formed under Athens’ leadership to guard against Persian threats but evolved into an Athenian empire, sparking tensions with Sparta. Peloponnesian League: Spartan response to Athenian dominance, eventually leading to the Peloponnesian War. Greek Geography: Mountainous terrain and scattered islands created natural barriers, fostering independent city-states. Three major seas (Aegean, Ionian, Mediterranean) enabled trade, warfare, and cultural exchange. Athens emphasized education, arts, and civic engagement, while Sparta prioritized military training and discipline. Battle of Marathon (490 BCE) Persian Side: - King Darius I: The Persian king who sought to punish Athens for its support of the Ionian Revolt and expand his empire into Greece. - Datis: Persian general who led the Persian expeditionary forces. Greek Side: - Miltiades: Athenian general credited with devising the battle strategy that led to the Greek victory. - Callimachus: The Athenian polemarch (war leader) who played a crucial role in the decision to engage the Persians in battle. - Pheidippides: A professional runner who famously ran to Sparta to request reinforcements and later inspired the modern marathon race. Battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE) Persian Side: - King Xerxes I: Son of Darius I, he led the massive invasion of Greece with the goal of subjugating the Greek city-states. - Hydarnes: Commander of the Persian Immortals, an elite unit of the Persian army. Greek Side: - King Leonidas I of Sparta: Led the Greek forces at Thermopylae, including his famous 300 Spartan warriors. - Themistocles: Though not present at Thermopylae, Themistocles was a key Athenian strategist who prepared the Greek naval forces for the subsequent Battle of Salamis. - Ephialtes: Greek traitor who revealed a secret mountain pass to the Persians, allowing them to flank the Greek forces. Battle of Salamis (480 BCE) Persian Side: - King Xerxes I: Again leading the Persian forces, he observed the battle from a throne overlooking the straits. - Artemisia I of Caria: A Persian naval commander and the queen of Halicarnassus. She advised Xerxes not to engage in the battle but later demonstrated exceptional skill during the fight. Greek Side: - Themistocles: Athenian general and mastermind of the Greek strategy at Salamis, using deception to lure the Persian fleet into the narrow straits. - Eurybiades: Spartan commander of the Greek naval forces, though Themistocles heavily influenced the strategy. Background Occurred shortly after the Battle of Thermopylae, where the Greeks suffered a heroic but costly defeat. The Persian King Xerxes I sought to conquer all of Greece and punish Athens for its resistance during the Ionian Revolt and the Battle of Marathon. Xerxes' massive army and navy advanced south, capturing Athens, which had been evacuated by its citizens. Greek Strategy Themistocles, an Athenian general, devised a plan to lure the Persian fleet into the narrow straits near Salamis, an island close to Athens. The Greeks had about 370 ships, primarily triremes, while the Persian navy was far larger, with approximately 600–1,200 ships. Greek ships were smaller, faster, and better suited for maneuvering in confined waters, while the Persian fleet relied on numbers and open-sea combat. The Battle Xerxes positioned himself on a throne overlooking the straits, confident in victory. Themistocles sent a deceptive message to Xerxes, suggesting that the Greek alliance was breaking apart and that the Persians should attack immediately to exploit the chaos. Persians entered the narrow straits, where their larger ships struggled to maneuver. Greek triremes, using their superior agility and ramming tactics, decimated the Persian fleet. Persian ships collided with each other, and their crews were unable to effectively fight back due to the cramped conditions. Outcome Greek losses: Approximately 40 ships. Persian losses: Over 200 ships, Xerxes, witnessing the destruction of his navy, withdrew much of his army back to Persia, leaving a smaller force under his general, Mardonius, to continue the campaign. Legacy Turning Point: The Greek victory at Salamis effectively ended Persia's naval dominance and cut off their supply lines. Psychological Impact: Boosted Greek morale and demonstrated the effectiveness of unity and strategic planning against a larger enemy. Long-Term Consequences: Led to the decisive Greek victory at the Battle of Plataea (479 BCE), which ended the Persian Wars. Key Takeaways The Battle of Salamis exemplified the power of strategy over sheer numbers. It solidified Themistocles’ reputation as a brilliant military leader. The battle showcased the importance of naval power in ancient warfare and preserved Greek independence, allowing their culture and democracy to flourish. The Cicones Episode from The Odyssey After the fall of Troy, Odysseus and his men raid the Cicones in Ismarus, initially succeeding. Overindulgence in celebration leads to a counterattack by the Cicones. Odysseus’ crew suffers casualties and is forced to retreat. Lessons and Significance: Greed and Overindulgence: Success led to hubris, a recurring theme in The Odyssey. It highlights the dangers of overconfidence. The Journey Begins: After the fall of Troy, Odysseus sets sail for Ithaca with his crew but encounters divine and supernatural challenges that delay his return. The gods play a significant role, with Poseidon particularly angry at Odysseus for blinding his son, the Cyclops Polyphemus. Encounters with Mythical Creatures and Gods: The Lotus-Eaters: His crew is tempted by the lotus flower, which causes forgetfulness and a desire to stay forever. The Cyclops (Polyphemus): Odysseus and his men are trapped by Polyphemus, but they trick him by telling him their name is "Nobody" and escape after blinding him. Circe: A sorceress who turns Odysseus' men into animals. With the help of Hermes, Odysseus overcomes her magic and stays on her island for a year. The Underworld: Odysseus visits the realm of the dead, where he speaks to spirits, including the prophet Tiresias, who tells him how to get home. The Sirens: Odysseus has his men plug their ears with beeswax while he listens to the Sirens' tempting songs, tying himself to the mast to avoid being lured to his doom. Scylla and Charybdis: Odysseus navigates between these two sea monsters, sacrificing some men to avoid total destruction. Return and Challenges at Home: The Phaeacians: Odysseus finds refuge with the Phaeacians, who help him return to Ithaca. Disguised and in Hiding: Odysseus returns home disguised as a beggar and assesses the situation at his palace, where suitors are trying to win his wife Penelope and take over his kingdom. The Test of the Bow: Penelope devises a challenge for the suitors, which only Odysseus can complete — shooting an arrow through twelve axes heads. Reunion and Revenge: Odysseus reveals his identity, and with the help of his son Telemachus and loyal servants, he fights and kills the suitors. Restoration and Peace: Odysseus reunites with Penelope, who tests him to ensure he is truly her husband. The epic concludes with Odysseus regaining his throne and peace being restored to Ithaca. 1. The Minoans were an early Greek civilization of the Bronze Age, living on the island of Crete in the Mediterranean Sea until around the 11th century BCE. 2. The Minoan Civilization developed on the island of Crete in the Mediterranean Sea. Crete lies south of Greece and the Aegean Sea. The Minoans built villages and towns that stretched across its entire surface. Crete is dominated by harsh mountains rising out of the sea. The island's east-west mountainous range consists of four main groups that rise to the island's highest point. Knossos were nearby. 3. The bronze age was important for the minoans because they were one of the first to use metals and coppers to their advantage, for perspective, the minoans bronze age started in 3000 bc, while britain's bronze age started in 1900 bc 4. Linear A was the primary script used in palace and religious writings of the Minoan civilization. 5. The Palace of Knossos was a significant building for the Minoan people as a center of religious, political, and economic authority. The palace covered three acres for the main building and five acres when including outbuildings. The palace had a monumental staircase, a theater, bathrooms, toilets, and a drainage system. The palace also had a ritual cult center on the ground floor. 6. The Greek island Thera was named island of Santorini in the modern era. It was located in the Aegean Sea which experienced a volcanic 7. The Minotaur was a half-man, half-bull beast in Greek mythology that was imprisoned in a labyrinth and fed Athenian sacrifices. The Athenian hero Theseus defeated the Minotaur with the help of Ariadne, the daughter of King Minos. 1. The Peloponnesian wars was a war fought between Sparta and Athens. It was fought mainly because Athens controlled the Delian league. The main phases were the Archidamian War, Peace of Nicias/Sicilian Expedition and Ionian War. 2. The war changed form short battles to longer conflicts involving populations and it took a toll on the economies as well as many naval fights. 3. This caused tension between Sparta and Athens because of Athens' power rising. 4. The delian league was like nato of the past. This group was to defend against persia. It turned into an empire as Athens grew in power and started controlling its allies. 5. Sparta feared it would lose its influence in the area, but the major reason was Athens' imperialism. 6. Archidamian: Spartan invasions, Athenian naval raids Peace of Nicias/Sicilian Expedition: Failed Athenian attack on Sicily Ionian: Spartan victory with Persian support 7. Athens lost its power, Sparta briefly led Greece, but overall Greece's unity was weakened due to the internal fighting. This made it easier for Macedonia to invade and take over. They developed the world’s first democracy. - The ancient greeks had a voting system - It was direct rather than representative - Adult male citizens over the age of 20 could take part, and it was a duty to do so. - The officials of the democracy were in part elected by the Assembly and in large part chosen by lottery in a process called sortition. - It was created by Athens - They had three systems, the Ekklesia, Boule and the Dikasteria (Boule was a lottery system) They wrote the first histories. - Herodotus (c. 484–425 BCE), often called the "Father of History," wrote The Histories, which documented the Greco-Persian Wars and explored themes of culture, geography, and the causes of conflicts  - Thucydides (c. 460–400 BCE) wrote History of the Peloponnesian War, offering a rigorous, critical, and evidence-based account of the conflict between Athens and Sparta, focusing on human nature and politics - Xenophon (c. 430–354 BCE) continued historical traditions with works like Anabasis, which detailed his journey with Greek mercenaries through Persia, and Hellenica, which served as a continuation of Thucydides' history They gave us many names that we still use today. - Geography: Names like "Europe" and "Asia" originated from Greek concepts - Astronomy: Terms like "planet" (from the Greek planētēs, meaning "wanderer") and constellations such as Orion come from Greek mythology and studies - Mathematics: Words like "geometry" (from geo, meaning "earth," and metron, meaning "measurement") and "theorem" trace back to Greek origins - Philosophy: Names like "ethics," "logic," and "academy" are rooted in Greek thought - Mythology: Names of gods and mythical figures, like Zeus, Athena, and Hercules, remain iconic in literature and culture They created outstanding literature, poetry, and mythology. (Homer’s Iliad and the Odyssey, Sappho for love poems) - Homer wrote The Iliad and The Odyssey, epic poems that have shaped Western literature, exploring themes of heroism, fate, and the human condition  - Sappho composed lyrical love poetry, celebrated for its emotional depth and vivid imagery, influencing poets for centuries - Greek Mythology produced timeless stories like the trials of Hercules, the Trojan War, and the adventures of Odysseus, serving as cultural and moral lessons - Dramatic Literature includes tragedies by Sophocles (Oedipus Rex) and comedies by Aristophanes (Lysistrata), laying the foundation for modern theater They were the first people to take the scientific approach to medicine by studying diseases. (Hippocrates) - Hippocrates, known as the "Father of Medicine," emphasized observation and logical reasoning in diagnosing and treating diseases, moving away from supernatural explanations - He introduced the Hippocratic Oath, a code of ethics still relevant in modern medicine - Greek physicians documented illnesses and treatments systematically, laying the foundation for evidence-based medicine - They believed in balancing the body's four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile) to maintain health, a concept that influenced medicine for centuries Historical Writing: By documenting events critically (e.g., Herodotus and Thucydides), the Greeks showcased intellectual curiosity and a commitment to understanding their past objectively, key traits of a civilized culture. Influential Terminology: Their creation of enduring terms in science, philosophy, and geography reflects their advanced understanding of the world and their desire to organize and explain it systematically. Literature and Mythology: Works like The Iliad and The Odyssey, and Sappho’s poetry, reveal their ability to explore complex human emotions and moral questions, emphasizing the Greeks' cultural sophistication. Scientific Medicine: Through figures like Hippocrates, they moved beyond superstition to adopt a rational, systematic approach to health, a hallmark of a society prioritizing knowledge and well-being. Democratic Governance: Athens' development of democracy demonstrates their emphasis on civic participation, law, and equality, foundational aspects of an organized and progressive civilization. 1. What was the main purpose of Draco’s law code in 621 BCE? The main purpose of Draco’s laws were made to prevent future rebellions and maintain the aristocracy’s power. The laws had harsh punishments such as death penalty, even for minor crimes such as loitering. 2. Provide an example of how Draco’s laws were considered harsh. Draco's laws were considered harsh because he would punish anyone that would try to rebel, if someone was caught they would be put to death, this was the same for any minor crimes, this made it so that people would obey the laws, because they knew that they would be put to death. 3. How did Solon change the Athenian laws in 594 BCE? Solon banned enslaving for people who could not pay their debts. He gave citizenship to all of his free men of Athens. 4. What was Solon’s most significant reform regarding debt? If people are not able to pay their debt they will be sold off into slavery. 5. Did Solon’s reforms fully remove power from the aristocracy? Explain your answer As a result of Solon's reforms, the aristocracy continued to hold control over the government. 6. What type of government did Peisistratos establish in Athens in 546 BCE? Because he ascended to the throne with a strong army and was adored by the majority of Athenians, Pesistratos established a tyranny in Greece, which is regretted in current times but was not during his reign. 7. How did Peisistratos maintain his power and gain the support of the Athenians? By building new festivals, temples, and monuments and imposing strict laws to better the lot of the common Athenians, Peisistratos was able to hold onto his authority and the support of the Athenians. 8. What happened to the tyranny established by Peisistratos after his death After his death, Peisistratos left his sons in charge, but after convincing Sparta to invade Athens in 510 BCE, the aristocrats overthrew the tyranny and took back power. 9. What significant change did Cleisthenes introduce to the Athenian government? Cleisthenes won the support of many Athenians and removed the aristocracy from power again, but replaced it with a new form of government called democracy. Unlike earlier forms of government in Athens, Cleisthenes’s idea of democracy welcomed and encouraged citizens to actively participate in lawmaking. 10. Define democracy as it was established by Cleisthenes. Cleisthenes established democracy in 508 BCE, giving power to the people. He organized Athens into 10 tribes, introduced the Council of 500 to make laws, and opened the Assembly to all male citizens. 11. How did Cleisthenes’s democracy differ from earlier Athenian governments? Cleisthenes’s democracy differed from earlier Athenian governments by shifting power from a small group of aristocrats to the population. He knew people should have more power and not just base it on family, giving more equal power. 12. Who was eligible for citizenship in Athenian democracy? Citizenship was given to adult males that were free and were born to parents who had completed military training and were born in Athens. So only a small part of the population could vote. 13. Name three groups of people who were excluded from citizenship in Athens. Women, children, immigrants, and enslaved people were excluded from the democracy. 14. What was the role of the Assembly in Athenian democracy? The Assembly was the central decision-making body in Athenian democracy, open to all male citizens. It voted on laws, policies, and major decisions like war and alliances. 15. Describe how decisions were made during Assembly meetings. After discussion during Assembly sessions, male citizens voted to decide issues. After the discussion, people might vote for or against ideas by raising their hands. The plan became law if it received a majority of votes. This lets the general population make laws and rules. 16. What was the role of the Council in organizing the Assembly? The Council of 500 helped run the Assembly by setting the agenda, discussing legislation, and making sure that decisions were carried out. With 500 members, 50 from each tribe, selected by lottery. 17. How were court cases decided in Athens? In Athens, issues were decided by large juries of people selected by lot. Both the prosecutor and the defendant presented their cases to the jury without the aid of a lawyer. The majority of the jurors then decided whether the defendant was guilty or innocent after voting. If found guilty, the jury also decides the punishment. 18. What contribution did Pericles make to Athenian democracy? He started to pay people in the jury and people that did social work, this has carried on into today as well, in many courtrooms and other places. 19. How did Athens lose its democracy in 338 BCE? Athens lost its independent democracy after the polis was conquered by Macedonia in 338 BCE. 20. What changes did Alexander the Great make to democracy in Athens by the 320s BCE? Following Alexander's reign and Philip II's conquest, Macedonian dominance had weakened Athens' democracy during the 320s BCE. Athens maintained its democratic system, but its independence was limited because Macedonian kings had the last say over laws. Athens' dominance was further reduced by internal conflicts and unstable politics.  21. What is the main difference between direct democracy and representative democracy? The main difference between representative and direct democracy is that in the former, individuals choose representatives to make choices for them, while in the latter, all residents vote directly on laws and policies. 22. Why was Athens able to use a direct democracy, unlike most countries today? Due to its small population, Athens was able to set up a direct democracy, which allowed all of its residents to gather in one location, discuss, and vote on laws and policies. 23. In your opinion, which leader—Draco, Solon, Peisistratos, or Cleisthenes—had the most significant impact on the development of Athenian government? Explain your reasoning. I believe that Peisistratos had the most impact as his reign of tyranny is what led to democracy, which changed the world in a massive way. He also improved the lives of ordinary citizens and had festivals and created many temples which would have boosted the economy as it would get more people working. 1. How long did the Hellenistic period last, and what 3 points characterized this era? The Hellenistic period lasted from 323 BCE, which was the year Alexander the great died, to 31 BCE, this is the year that Rome beat Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium. 2. What were the 3 major kingdoms to emerge during this period? The three major kingdoms during this period were the Ptolemaic Kingdom, the Seleucid Empire and the Antigonid Kingdom. 3. What happened to the Greek city states? The Greek city states were taken over by one of the Hellenistic period kingdoms, mainly the Antigonid kingdom. Some formed leagues like the Achaean League or Aetolian League. Over time they were all absorbed into the Roman empire. 4. What trends developed with art and architecture? Art was becoming more real and it had become more emotionally expressive. Architecture became more monumental as shown by the lighthouse of Alexandria and the altar of Zues in Pergamon. 5. What advances were made in the sciences, engineering and mathematics? Advancements in engineering and math happened. Eratosthenes calculated the Earth's circumference during this time. Astronomy was also advancing during this time as Hipparchus had made a better way to map out the stars.  6. What two main philosophical schools of thought emerged during this period, and what views did they hold? The two main philosophical schools that emerged during this era were Stoicism and Epicureanism. Stoicism made by Zeno of Citium, focused on emphasizing virtue, rationality, and living in harmony with nature's order, favouring inner peace regardless of outside circumstances. Epicureanism was made by Epicurus, it promoted seeking pleasure ( the absence of pain) and avoiding fear, especially of gods or death, emphasizing peace through living a simple life.