Anatomy - Final exam review.docx

Anatomy - Final exam review Week 8-13 82 questions Blood to this week Arteries: carry blood away from the heart, towards tissues Carries oxygenated blood thicker Veins: carry blood towards the heart Carries deoxygenated blood Thinner Arteries: Tunia Media: Smooth muscle tissues with...

Anatomy - Final exam review Week 8-13 82 questions Blood to this week Arteries: carry blood away from the heart, towards tissues Carries oxygenated blood thicker Veins: carry blood towards the heart Carries deoxygenated blood Thinner Arteries: Tunia Media: Smooth muscle tissues with arteries, alot bigger as arteries are bigger Veins: Tunia externa, tunia media, tunia intima: a lot smaller as veins are smaller Venous drainage of abdomen and chest: Median cubital: where we get blood from (when nurses take blood) The life cycle of red blood cells: 120 days Hemoglobin: protein structure that carries the oxygen EPO: Erythoprotein The heart wall: 3 main layers External layer: pericardium layer, composed of aerolar tissue and epithelium, encloses the whole heart middle layer: myocardium layer, muscle layer, contains cardiac muscle cells and connective tissue Inner layer: endocardium layer, composed of endothelium and areolar tissue Conducting system of the heart: Signal from S A node causes all atrial cells to contract together, starts the “pacemaker” Signal is delayed at A V node Ensures atria contract before ventricles Action potential travels then to: A V bundle Left and right bundle branches Purkinje fibers The 2 ventricles will then contract simultaneously If SA node does not start, AV will still be able to start but will give a weaker heart rate The pattern of circulation: Pulmonary circuit Composed of arteries and veins that transport blood between the heart and lungs Begins at the right ventricle; ends at the left atrium Systemic circuit Transports oxygenated blood to all organs and tissues Begins at the left ventricle; ends at the right atrium Internal anatomy and blood flow: Atrioventricular valves (AV valves) allow blood to flow only one way (from the atrium into the ventricles) The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the superior and inferior venae cavae. Left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins. Blood travels from the right atrium into the right ventricle through the right AV valve (also known as the tricuspid valve because it has 3 flaps) – this prevents backflow of blood into the atrium when the ventricle contracts. With contraction blood exits through the pulmonary valve ( also known as the pulmonary semilunar valve) into the pulmonary trunk The left ventricle has a much thicker wall than the right ventricle. It receives blood from the left atrium through the left AV valve – also called the bicuspid or mitral valve – it prevents backflow of blood to the atrium during contraction of the ventricle When the left ventricle contracts blood exits through the aortic valve (aortic semilunar valve) Deoxygenated blood: Superipilor vena cava->Right atrium->tricupsid valce->right ventricle->pulmonary valve->pulmonary artery->goes to tissues->comes back through pulmonary veins Coronary circulation: The coronary arteries originate at the base of the ascending aorta. There are right and left coronary arteries – they branch off Differences between the ventricles: Right ventricle Thinner myocardium and wall, half-moon shape in cross section Lower pressure Only needs to propel blood the short distance to the lungs Left ventricle Very thick myocardium and wall Produces 4-6 times as much pressure as right ventricle Propels blood to entire systemic circuit Heart dynamics: Stroke volume (SV) Volume of blood ejectd by a ventricle in one beat Cardiac output (CO) Volume of blood ejected from left ventricle in one minute CO equation: (SV X HR) Homeostasis: Normal range of BP: 120/80 Maintain homeostasis, what is supposed to happen when the body needs to maintain homeostasis Cardiac cycle: The cardiac cycle is the period between the start of one heartbeat and the beginning of the next The heart sounds (“lub” “dub”) is the different valves closing Systole – which is the contraction phase – blood is being pushed either into the adjacent chamber or the arterial trunk Diastole – which is the relaxation phase when the chamber fills with blood Period between start of one heartbeat and start of the next Includes alternating periods of contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) During diastole the chambers are filling with blood During systole the chambers are ejecting blood Blood types: Antigens and Antibodies We have proteins on our cell membranes that allow us to recognize which cells are ours and which are foreign. These are called antigens. 1. Type A (has only surface antigen A) – contains anti-B antibodies in plasma – your immune system will attack type B surface antigens. 2. Type B (has only surface antigen B) – contains anti-A antibodies in plasma 3. Type AB (has both A and B surface antigens) – no anti-A or B antibodies 4. Type 0 ( has no A or B surface antigens) but has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in plasma Neutrophils: Make up 50-70 % of circulating WBCs Usually first WBC to arrive at injury site Very active phagocytes, attacking and digesting bacteria Lymphocytes: Large numbers migrate in and out of peripheral tissues Some types attack foreign cells, others secrete antibodies into circulation Slightly larger then RBC About 20-40% of circulating WBCs The coagulation phase: The third phase Coagulation (blood clotting) Begins 30s or more after damage Involves complex sequence of steps or cascade End result is the conversion of fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin Fibrin network grows Traps blood cells and more platelets Forms a blood clot Liquid blood plasma is converted into gel Seals damaged portion of blood vessel Factors released by platelets and endothelial cells interact with clotting factors either the extrinsic or intrinsic pathway, or common pathway to form a blood clot Extrinsic: outside of the blood vessel, tissues, cells outside the vessel, trigger release of chemicals Intrinsic: inside cells send out chemicals that trigger coagulation Calcium is important in blood clotting, but many factors - hemophilia lack of one or more clotting factors Common pathway - plasma protein fibrinogen is converted to fibers of fibrin The clotting process: Requires clotting factors Calcium ions, vitamin K, and 11 different plasma proteins Proteins are converted from inactive proenzymes to active enzymes involved in reactions Liver synthesizes most of these clotting proteins Clotting factors interact in a sequence, or cascade Product of first reaction is enzyme that activates second reaction, etc Blood clot forms as result of extrinsic, intrinsic, and common pathways Lymphatic system: Lymphocytes: type of white blood cells, these cells provide defense against specific pathogens or toxins Lymphocytes in lymphatic vessels are surrounded by lymph - this is interstitial fluid that has entered a lymphatic vessel Main functions of the lymphatic system: Carries fluids back to the bloodstream. The fluid that comes out of the bloodstream in the tissues needs to be brought back into the bloodstream. Tissues and organs of the lymphatic system filter out and phagocytose pathogens. The organs include tonsils, thymus, spleen and appendix, mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) Produce lymphocytes in the red bone marrow and thymus Areas that do NOT have lymphatic vessels are the cornea of the eye, the bone marrow, and the CNS The body's innate (nonspecific) defenses: Immunity is your body’s defense against pathogens, there are 2 types: innate and adaptive. Innate is the immunity you are born with Physical barriers: Prevent approach of and deny access to pathogens Phagocytes: Remove debris and pathogens Immune surveillance: Destroys abnormal cells Interferons: Increase resistance of cells to viral infections Slow the spread of disease Complement system: Attacks and breaks down surfaces of cells bacteria, and viruses, Attracts phagocytes Stimulates inflammation Inflammation (multiple effects) Fever: Mobilizes defenses Accelerates repairs Inhibits pathogens All lymphocytes are initially generated in red bone marrow T Cells - migrate to the thymus to mature B cells - migrate in the bone marrow - move into the lymph nodes, the spleen and other lymphoid tissue natural killer cells - migrate throughout the body, patrolling peripheral tissues Forms of immunity: Adaptive immunity is the body’s specific immunity. recognized as foreign, damaged, or unknown, adaptive immunity is very choosy. Adaptive immunity will only attack specific threats. It is our most powerful defense Adaptive immunity is carried out by two types of lymphocytes, the B cells and the T cells. Adaptive immunity has 3 underlying traits – it is specific, it recognizes and attacks only specific pathogens. it is systemic – this is a widespread reaction, not limited to a localized region of the body. adaptive immunity has memory. In many cases, once you are exposed to an antigen, your body remembers and you become resistant to reinfection. The respiratory system: The nose, nasal cavity, and pharynx: Air coming from the external nares travels past the nasal vestibule which contains the coarse hairs that filter debris, then the nasal cavity which contains conchae that swirl the incoming air, trapping debris, warming and humidifying the air, and assisting with the sense of smell. The nasal vestibule is a space enclosed by flexible tissues of the nose The nasal septum divides the cavity into right and left sides The pharynx is a chamber shared by the digestive and respiratory systems. It can be divided into the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx Back of nasal cavity – air moves to the pharynx (throat) – nasopharynx –region behind the nasal cavity, oropharynx behind oral cavity, laryngopharynx behind larynx (first part of the lower respiratory tract) Nasal cavity cleared and flushed by: Mucus produced by the respiratory mucosa Mucus produced in the paranasal sinuses Tears flowing through the nasolacrimal duct Exposure to dust, debris, allergens, or vapors increases mucus production The esophagus is posterior – air turns to the larynx The glottis is the opening to the larynx, the larynx surrounds and protects the glottis and the trachea conducts air towards the lungs. The anatomy of the larynx: The larynx can be called the voice box. It has 3 large cartilages and 3 small cartilages Epiglottis – during swallowing it folds back over the glottis preventing solids and liquids from entering the respiratory tract. Thyroid cartilage – also called the Adam's apple Cricoid cartilage – it is a complete ring of cartilage The anatomy of the trachea: The trachea (or windpipe) runs from the larynx to the bronchi. Held open by 15-20 c-shaped tracheal cartilages. They prevent the trachea from collapsing and don’t completely encircle as it allows for expansion of the esophagus during swallowing. The trachea branches into the right and left primary bronchi. The right is larger than the left is at a steeper angle and tends to be the location where a foreign object might get lodged if aspirated. Bronchial branching: Primary bronchi, secondary bronchi which go to each lobe, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchiole, and respiratory bronchiole - where the alveoli are Alveolar organization: Each lung has over 150 million alveoli Each ball represents an alveoli or air sac, they are surrounded by elastic fibers that help push air out of the lungs, capillary beds help us to receive oxygen and get rid of CO2 Each lung is highly vascular Pneumocyte type 1 - squamous epithelial cells, very thin Pneumocyte type 2 - produce surfactant Surfactants are an oily secretion, they reduce the surface tension so they won’t collapse if babies are born too premature – a main concern is that they haven’t produced surfactant which is necessary to keep the alveoli open. Simple squamous epithelium is the lining of the alveolus, surrounded by capillaries. Surfactant is an oily secretion, that reduces surface tension of water, and allows bubbles to stay open. they reduce the surface tension so they won’t collapse if babies are born too premature – a main concern is that they haven’t produced surfactant which is necessary to keep the alveoli open. alveolar macrophages – they patrol the epithelial tissue of the alveoli looking for any particles that could cause infection and will phagocytose them The blood-air barrier of the alveoli: Called the respiratory membrane Site of gas exchange (diffusion) The alveolus and the capillary diffusion occur quickly because the distance is very short - the respiratory membrane is about 0.5 um The surfactant plays a key role in keeping the alveoli open The control of respiration: The medulla oblongata Pons