Anatomy & Physiology Reviewer PDF

ANAPHY REVIEWER - Involves looking at the exterior of the body to visualize structure deeper inside. Contributors of Anatomy & Physiology  VISUALIZATION- Anatomical  Leon...

ANAPHY REVIEWER - Involves looking at the exterior of the body to visualize structure deeper inside. Contributors of Anatomy & Physiology  VISUALIZATION- Anatomical  Leonardo Da Vinci structures are studied by sight - First to illustrate the human skeleton  PALPATIONS- Method of feeling with all its bones (206 bones) with the fingers/hand  William Harvey 3. Radiographic Anatomy - First to recognized the circulation of he - The study of body structures and blood in the human blood anatomy tha can be visualized with x-ray - Systematic and Pulmonary and radiographic films  Anton Van Leeuwenhoek  Pacalytic- muscles begin to - Described cells as “cock” atrophy - Father of microscope  Atrophy- is the decrease of size ANATOMY of a body part, cell, organ, or  Study of structure and shape of the other tissues body and its pars and their PHYSIOLOGY relationship with one another  Physio means “nature” and ology  The science of body structures, their means “study of” microscopic organization and process  Deals with the processes on how the by which they develop body and body parts works on: LEVELS OF ANATOMY Ex: SKULL= CRANIUM- It protects the 1. Gross Anatomy/ Macroscopic Anatomy brain, senses and all the nerves. - Studying large, easily observable SUBSPECIALTY OF PHYSIOLOGY structures which means they can be seen 1. Neuro physiology with the naked eye. - study of functional properties of nerve 2. Microscopic Anatomy cells or neurons - The study of body structures that are 2. Endocrinology too small for the naked eye - study of hormones (chemicals that - (cells and tissues) coordinate different functions of the - can only be seen through a microscope body)  Cytology- Study of cells (cyto) 3. Cardiovascular physiology  Histology Study of tissues - study of heart and blood vessels 3. Regional Anatomy - Homeostasis is regulated by the - Study of the organization of the body endocrine and nervous system and emphasizing the relations between 4. Immunology various structures in that region -studies how the body defends itself 4. Systematic Anatomy againts disease-causing agents - Study of groups of structures that work - Pathogens parasites, fungi, bacteria together to perform body function and virus 5. Developmental Anatomy - weak immune system= weak body & - Study of structural changes that occur susceptibility between conception and adulthood to 5. Respiratory Physiology death - studies the functions of he air SUBSPECIALTY OF ANATOMY passageways and lungs 1. Embryology 6. Renal Physiology - The first 8 weeks (2months) of fetus - studies the function of kidneys development, wherein fertilization is the 7. Exercise physiology union of egg cell and sperm cell - studies the changes in cell & oragn 2. Surface Anatomy function / muscular activity 8. Pathophysiology -Studies functionl changes associated 5. Organ Level with disease and aging - Composed of 2 or more types of tissues - Degeneration process body and organs that perform specific functions begin to deteriorate - these are 11 systems in total - decrease in the production of fluid  Muscular system (muscle) LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL  Reproductive system (testes & ORGANIZATION ovaries) 1. Chemical Level  Cardiovascular system ( heart and -most basic level which includes atom of blood vessels) diff. Elements  Integumentary system (skin) - atom ( smallest unit of matter)  Digestive system ( stomach) - molecules (2 or more atoms joined  Endocrine system (glands) together)  Lymphatic system (lymph) - Molecules found in the body:  Respiratory system(lungs)  DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)- genetic  Urinary system (kidney) material  Nervous system (brain)  Glucose- blood sugars, simplest sugar  Skeletal system (bones) found in blood 6. Organism Level  Robonucleic acid - any living individual where all the parts  Collagen- responsible for flexibility of the human body functioning together) 2. Cellular Level -Highest level of structural organization - molecules combined to form cells, which ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW are smallest unit of life  Integumentary system  Unicellular- single-celled - external covering of the body which  Multicellular- multi-celled waterproofs the body, and protects the  Prokaryotes- no cell wall, has nucleus deeper tissues fr injuries  Eukaryotes- has cell wall, no nucleus - Active name for Vit D- Calcitriol 3. Tissue Level Inactive name for Vit D- Cholecalciferol - Diff, types of cells  Skeletal system  Epithelial- covers inside and out of -consists of bones, joints, and their organs associated cartilages  Nerve cells- for communication - stores lipids(fats) and minerals (calcium)  Smooth muscle cell- for contraction  Muscular System  Connective tissue- provides cohession - Responsible for movement, support, and and internal supply produces heat for body temp. - Blood (consist of cell and cell fragments)  Nervous System -Yellow bone marrow (fatty issue)- sorage - consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerve, of fats, located in the middle of long special sense organs (recetors)- bones (adipocytes) eyes&ears - Red blood marrow(myeloid)- soft spongy - fast acting control system tissue -responds to internal nd external changes - Tissues are group of cells that work  Endocrine system together to perform particular function - hormone-producing glands are ductless 4. Organ System Level (no passageways) -consisting of related organs with a - responsible for growth, reproduction common function and metabolism Ex: pancreas is part of both the digestive - METABOLISM- sum of total of and endocrine system chemical reaction in the body  Cardiovascular system -transport and delivery system -help repair damaged blood vessels  WATER (H20) Ex; platelets - Comprises 60%-80% of our body weight  Lymphatic/ immune system - most abundant chemical sybstance in - defense and immunity against pathogens the body and return lost-fluids to cardiovascular - Food can also provid water system  STABLE BODY TEMPERATURE - lymphatic vessels, carry lipids from - normal body temp. is 37C or 98.6F or gastrointestinal blood 310.2 K  Respiratory system - CONVULSION (FEBRILE) - shaking or - consist of nasal, passages, nose,air seizure caused by very high body temp passage like pharynx(throat), larynx ( 38.8 C above) (voice box), trachea(wind pipes), bronchi, -HYPOTHERMIA- exposure to very cold bronchioles and 2 lungs environment, lower that 35C  Digestive system - too cold or too hot: slower metabolic - helps in physical and chemical reactions breakdown of food  ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE -accessory organs (salvary organs, liver, - Force that exerts on the surface of the gall bladder, pancreas body - nose/smell- first organ to take place -at higher altitudes, where atmospheric is -small intestine absorbs nutrients in your lower and air is thin, gas exchange may be food inadequate to supprort cellular  Urinary system metabolism - temporary stores urine CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN - excretory system ORGANISM BASIC LIFE PROCESS - helps regulate normal blood pressure 1. Metabolism- sum of all the chemical  Reproductive system processes that occur in the body - responsible for the production of 2. Responsiveness/Irritabilty offspring - ability to detect and respond to changes - male reproductive system consists - body has to respond to changes in order testes, scrotum (holds testes), epididymis, to maintain the body in homeostasis vas deferens, duct system, penis -Nervous system: most involved -female reproductive system consists - Nerves: monitors and receive signals ovaries, fallopian tuve, uterus, cervix - highly irritable and communicates (opening of vagina) and vagina rapidly through “electrical impulses” SURVIVAL NEEDS (nerve impulses)  Essential in order for the body to 3. Movement function well and maintainlife -locomotion activity of the whole body  OXYGEN - includes movement promoted by he - makes all other nutrients supply muscular system  NUTRIENTS - muscle provide movements - used for energy and cell building 4. Growth - plant derived foods are rich in - Increase in the body size hat results carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals from an increase in the size of existing -protein & some fats : building cell cells structure -hormones by the endocrine play major - carbohydrates: major energy fuel for role in directing growth body cell -From womb, there is growth - lipids: reserved energy fuel - increase in somatic cell will bring growth 5. Differentation COMPONENS OF HOMEOSTASIS - development of cell from unspecialized  Rceptor- receiver of stimulus by structure sending information to the control - STEM CELLS: give rise to cells which center will undergo differentation  Control Center- Processes the - through differentation, a fertilized egg received stimulus (zygote) develops into embryo, then fetus, - it sends appropriate instrctions and and an infant, to a child, and an individual responses 6. Reproduction  Effectors- the one that instructs - formation of new cells for tissue growth - glands or muscles may react and repair and replacement ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY -reproduction of new cells is important - Used to prevent misunderstanding HOMEOSTASIS SUPERFICIAL ANATOMY  Body’s ability to maintain a stable  Anatomical Position- body upright balance among all body systems  Prone- laying down facing downward  Disturbance= Homeostasic imbalance ( nakadapa)  Brain- control system  Supine- laying down facing upward  Nervous and endocrine system- main (nakahiga) system that maintain homeostasis  Cephalocaudal- starts from head to MECHANISM OF REGULATION toe 1. Autoregulation (intrinsic)  Anatomical Landmarks- palpable - automatic response in a cell tissue or structures (able to feel using bare organ o see environmental change hands) 2. Extrinsic Regulation  Anatomical Regions- includes body - responses controlled by nervous and regions such as head, thoracic, pelvic, endocrie system abdominal pelvic quadrants  Anatomical Direction- reference - In high temp. Hypothalamus detects the term based on subject stimulus and sends communication/ ANATOMICAL LANDMARKS: stimulates sweat glands to cool down the ANTERIOR body UP -In low temp., hypothalamus sends  Cephalic (cephalon/head) communication to the muscle to shiver to  Cranial (cranium/ skull) produce heat  Facial (facies/face) HOMEOSTASIS FEEDBACK  Frontal (frons/forehead) MECHANISM  Temporal (temple) 1. Negative Feedback Mechanism  Orbital (oculus/ eye) - reverses a change in a controlled  Nasal (nasus/nose) condition  Oral (otis/mouth) - results to reduction, monitors, and  Mental (mentis/chin) respond changes on the body  Buccal (bucca/cheek) - it stops or negates condition  Otic (avris/ ear) Ex: thermoregulation, control of blood  Cervical (cervicis/ neck) sugars, withdrawal reflex  Thoracic (thorix chest) 2. Positive Feedback Mechanism  Axillary (axilla/armpit) - it extremes, strengthen, in one of the  Mammary (mamma/breast) body’s controlled condition  Abdominal (abdomen) Ex: blood clotting and child birth  Umbilical (umbilicus/ navel)  Brachial- (brachium/arm)  Antecubital (front of elbow)  Antebrachial (forearm) ABDOMINOPELVIC REGION  Carpal (wrist) Right Epigastric Left  Palmar (palm) Hypochondri Region Hypochondri  Pollex (thumb) ac Region (stomach) ac Region  Digital ( fingers) (Liver, (spleen)  Manual (manus/ hand) Gallbladder)  Doorsum (back of hand) Right Umbilical Left DOWN Lumbar Region (Large Lumbar  Pelvic (pelvis) Region and small Region  Pubic intestine  Inguinal (groin) Right Hypogastric/ Left  Coxal (hip) Inguinal Pubic Region Inguinal  Femoral ( Region Region  Crural (leg) (appendix)  Tarsal (ankle) DIRECTIONAL TERMS  Digital (toes) - Describe the position of one body part  Hallux (Great toe) relative to another  Pedal ( Foot) TERM DEFINITION ANATOMICAL LANDMARKS: Superior (cranial Above or higher POSTERIOR /cephalic) UP Inferior (cardal) Below or lower  Occipital (base of skull) Anterior ( ventral) Front or forward  Cephalic (cephalon/head) Posterior (dorsal) Back or rear  Cervical ( cervicis/ neck) Medial Toward or at the  Dorsal (back) midline  Scapular (shoulder blade) Lateral Away from midline  Vertebral (spinal column) proximal Closer from origin  Olecranal/cubital (back of elbow) Distal Farther from origin  Dorsum (back of hand) Internal (deep) Away from surface DOWN External(superficial) Closer to the surface  Lumbar (loin) Ipislateral same side  Sacral (between hips) Contralateral Opposite side  Gluteal (buttock) SECTIONAL ANATOMY  Perineal ( region between anus and external genitals) PLANES AND SECTIONS  Popliteal ( back of knee)  Plane- a three dimensional axis  Crural (leg) - imaginary flat surface that pass through  Plantar (sole) body parts  Sections- a slice parallel to a plane  Calcaneal (heel) - used to visualize internal organization and structure - important in MRI, PET, CT SCAN SECTIONAL PLANES 1. Sagittal Plane - Veterbtral plane hat divides the body or an organ into right and left side  Midsagittal Plane- equal left and right  Parasagittal plane- unequal left and right 2. Frontal//Coronal Plane- divides the  Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) body anterior(front) and posterior - High energy magnetic field (back) -protons in body fluid align w field 3. Transverse plane- divides superior -color image, video monitor (upper) and inferior (lower) - 2D and 3D blueprint BODY CAVIIES -used to detect tumors and kidney - Are spaces within the body that hekp disorders protec, separate, and support internal organs  Computed Tomography  Cranial Cavity- formed by cranial -Computer Assisted Radiography (CT- bones and contains brain SCAN)  Vertebral caity- formed by vertebral -visualizes soft tissues and organs column and contains spinal cord and - Whole body CT-SCAN the beginning of the spinal nerves  Position Emission Tomography  Thorcic cavity- chest cavity (PET) -Right pleural cavity: surround righ lung - gamma rays produced - Mediastinum: contains trachea, -computer constructed a PET scan image esophagus and major vessels in color - Left pleural cavity: surrounds left lung - used to study the physiology of body -Pericardial cavity: surrounds heart structure  Abdominopelvic cavity- ENDOSCOPY -Abdominal cavity: contains stomach.  Endoscope : lighted instrument with Spleen, livee, gallbladder, small intestine.. lens, Image projected into the - Pelvic cavity: contains urinary bladder, monitor portions of large intestine and internal  Colonscopy : Interior of colon organs of reproduction  Anthroscopy : interior of joint (knee) OPEN BODY CAVITIES CLINICAL CONNECTION: AUTOPSY 1. Oral and digestive caviies  Postmortem (after death) 2. Nasal cavity examination of the body and internal 3. Orbital cavity organs 4. Middle ear cavities  Used to determine the cause of MEDICAL IMAGING death  Refers to the techniques and INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM precedures used to create images of SKIN the human body Skin(cutaneous membrane)  Conventional radiographic (x-ray)  Skin derivatives have been used since the late 1940’s  Sweat glands RADIOGRAPHY  Oil glands  Usually provide sufficient  Hair glands information for diagnosis  Nails  X-rays  Largest organ of the body - Produce image of interior structure  Area (2 square meters) - hallow structure appear black or gray  Weighs 4.5 kg (16% of body - at low dose, useful for soft tissue weight) (breast)  0.5-4mm thick - Mammography (breast): examining soft  Thickening of skin: callous tissues such as breast -Bone Densitometry: for determining bone density  2 REGIONS OF THE SKIN - Intermediate filament (produces lamellar granules) EPIDERMIS - found in the deepest part of epidermis  Outermost layer of skin ( stratum basale )  Stratified squamous epithelium  Melanocytes  Cornified or keratinized (hardened to - Produces melanin/melanin pigment prevent waterloss) - Found in stratum basale  Avascular  Dendritic (Langerhans) cells  Most cells are keratinocytes - Involved in immune responses LAYERS OF EPIDERMIS - Ingest foreign subjects 1. Stratum Basale ( stratum germinativum) - Found in stratum spinosum  Deepest layer of epidermis  Tactile (Merkel) cells  Lies next to dermis - sensory neuron  Cells undergoing mitosis - functions as sensory receptor for touch 2. Stratum Spinosum (pricky layer) - stratum basale  8-10 layers of keratinocytes/ proides strength and flexibility DERMIS  Contain weblike system of  Dense connective tissue intermediate filaments  Vascular  Langerhans cells are also present  Also called “true skin” 3. Stratum granulosum (granular layer)  Papillary layer  3-5 layers of keratinocytes that are  Reticular layer going aptosis ( cell death) LAYERS OF DERMIS  Accumulates 2 types of granules: 1. Capillar/ Papillary plexus -Keratohyaline granules- help to form  Composed of connective tissue keratin in the upper layer’ containing collagen and elastic fibers - Lamellar granules- contain water  Skin stretching causes stretchmarks resistant glycolipid for slowing water loss  Other house pan receptors and touch across epidermis receptors called tactile or Meissner’s 4. Stratum Lucidum (clear layer) corpuscles  Present only in the dead skin 2. Reticular Layer  3-5 layers of flattened clear dead  Dense irregular connective tissue keratinocytes containing collagens, elastic fibers,  Eleidin - substance related to adipose cells, hair follicles, nerves, keratin and occurring in small sebaceous (oil) glands, and granules that stain deeply with sudoriferous (sweat) glands hematoxylin and are located in the SKIN STRUCTURE cells of the stratum lucidum of the 1. Subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis) is epidermis. deep to dermis 5. Stratum corneum (Horny layer) 2. Not technically part of the skin  Outermost layer of epidermis 3. Anchors skin to underlying organs  Composed of many 25-30 sublayers 4. Composed mostly of adipose tissue of flat, dead keratinocytes, replaced every 25-45 days  Epidermal Ridges- finger prints CELLS IN EPIDERMIS  Langer lines- Langer lines of skin  Keratinocytes tension, or sometimes called cleavage - Produces keratin (90% of the cell), lines, are topological lines drawn on a fibrous protein that helps give the map of the human body. epidermis its protective properties  NORMAL SKIN COLOR SKIN APPENDAGES DETERMINANTS 1. Oil (sebaceous) glands 1. Melanin  Produces oil (sebum), accumulated - Polymer made of tyrosine amino acids lipids and cell fragments -PHEOMELANIN ( yellow, reddish)  Lubricant for skin -EUMELANIN ( brownish to black)  Kills bacteria 2. Carotene HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE - Orange-yellow pigment from some 1) Whiteheads- accumulated sebum vegetables blocks a sebacous gland duct - Deposited in Stratum corneum and in 2) Blackhead- material oxidizes and faty tissue in hypodermis dries 3. Hemoglobin 3) Acne- an active inflammation of - Red coloring from blood cells in dermal sebaceous glands accompanied by- capillaries pimples- caused by bacterial HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE infection (staphylococcus)  Cyanosis= results in hemoglobin 4) Seborrhea- overactive sebaceous poorly oxygenated 2. Sweat (sudoriferous) glands - blood and skin appears to be blue  Produces sweat - cannot be determined in black people  Widely distributed in skin except ALTERATIONS IN SKIN COLOR nipples and parts of external  Emotions influences skin colors genitalia /alternations may indicate certain  Hyperhydrosis- excessive sweating diseases: TWO TYPES OF SWEAT GLANDS 1. Redness (erythema)  Eccrine (Merocrine) sweat glands - due to embarrassment, inflammation, - Numerous and abundant in palms, soles, hypertension, fever, or allergy feet and forehead 2. Pallor (blanching)/ pale - produces sweat (clear) - due to emotional stress such as fear,  Apocrine sweat glands anemia, low blood pressure, imared blood - Approx. 2,000 are largely confined to flow to an area the axillary and anogenital areas 3. Jaundice (yellow cast) - begin to function at puberty -liver disorder Ceruminous Glands 4. Hemangioma - Modified aprocrine glands found in the - Birthmarks lining of the external ear canal 5. Vitiligo -secretion mixes - Partial loss of melanocytes -Salts and Vit. D 6. Albinisim - Excretes waste product - inherited/ genetic trait/ absence of -Odor is from associated bacteria melanin 3. Hair or Pili 7. Bruises (black/blue marks)  Produced by hair follicle - Hematoma  Fastest growing tissue in the body -PMDD (Pre menstrual Dysphoric  Consist of hard keratinized epithelial Disorder) cells SKIN MARKINGS  Melanocytes produce pigment for  Friction ridges hair color  Freckles and moles(nevus)  Hair grows in the matrix of the hair  Flexion lines bulb in stratum basale  Birthmarks (hemangiomas)  TYPES OF HAIR SKIN FUNCTIONS 1. Lanugo  PROTECTION -Prevents 2. Vellus Hair microorganisms from entering the 3. Terminal Hair (Guard hair) body HAIR ANATOMY  SENSATION- sensory receptors for  Central Medulla pain, touch, hot, cold, pressure - Consist of large cell and air spaces  VITAMIN D PRODUCTION - Only part if the hair that contains soft  TEMPERATURE REGULATION keratin, absent in fine hairs  EXCRETION  Cortex surrounds medulla 3 TYPES OF SKIN BARRIER  Cuticle or outside of cortex 1. Chemical Barrier - Most heavily keratinized - includes skin secretions and melanin - provides strength and helps keep the - acid mantle- retards the multiplication inner layers tightly compacted of bacteria ASSOCIATED HAIR STRUCTURE - Human defensin  Hair follicle- where each hair rises - Cathelicidins- for wound healing  Shaft- above the skin - Melanin- protective shield  Root- below the skin  Permeable- penetrable  Hair bulb- site of hair cell formation  Impermeable- not penetrable  Hair papila- contains knots of 2. Physical Barrier capillaries that supply nutrients to - thicker epidermis is more impenetrable the growing hair and signals to grow 3. Biological Barrier  Arrector pili muscle- smooth muscle -Langerhans/Dendritic cells cells - macro phages: disposes bacteria and - pulls hair upright when cold or viruses/ second line of defense in dermis frightened LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF SKIN HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE 1. Molecular Level- Melanin, keratin, vit D  Hirsutism 2. Microscopic level- stem and skin cells -excessive hairness 3. Tissue level- epithelial tissue, - may result from an adrenal gland or connective tissue ovarian tumor 4. Organ level- skin, hair, glands, muscles  Alopecia and nerves - hair thinning and some degree of BURNS baldness  Tissue damage - true or frank baldness  Caused by intense heat, UV - most common, male pattern baldness radiation, electricity, or chemicals 4. Nails ASSOCIATED DANGERS:  Scale-like modifications of the  Dehydration epidermis  Circulatory shock  Heavily keratinized  Electrolyte shock NAIL STRUCTURE RULE OF NINES  Nail body- visible part of the nail  Body is divided into 11 areas for  Nail root- embedded in skin quick examination  Cuticle- proximal nail fold that  Each area represents about 9% of projects onto the nail body total body surface area  Nail matrix- produces the nail  Genital area(perineum) is 1%  Lunula- white, crescent-shaped SEVERITY OF BURNS area  FIRST-DEGREE BURNS - Only epidermis is damaged - skin is red and slightly swelling -no scarring  D= Diameter - takes few days to heal - spot is larger than 6mm in diameter Ex: Sunburn  E= Evolution/ Elevation  SECOND-DEGREE BURNS  F= Feel -Also called “partial thickness burns” -feels hard to touch -redness and swelling  G=Growing - mild pain and blisters - getting larger - epidermis and dermis are damaged SKELETAL SYSTEM - takes 5-7 days to heal FUNCTIONS:  THIRD-DEGREE BURNS  Supports the body - Epidermis, dermis and underlying tissues  Assistance in movements are damaged  Protection (protects soft body - Forms a scarr tissue organs) - there is no pain (skin receptors are  Blood cell formation (hematopioesis) destroyed)  Strogae ( minerals & fats) - takes long time to heal  Triglyceride storage  FOURTH-DEGREE WHAT MAKES UP BONES? BURNS/CRITICAL BURNS  Matrix minerals -Extended into deeper tissues such as  2/3 of bone matrix is calcium bone, muscles, and tendons phosphate - may cause amputations  Reacts with calcium hydroxide or SKIN CANCER hydroxyapatile  Cancer- abnormal cell mass RED BONE MARROW- Produces RBC,  Skin cancer- most common type of WBC, and platelets cancer YELLOW BONE MARROW- Produces  Benign- does not spread fats (encapsulated) SMALL BRAIN- microcephali  Malignant- Metastasized(moves) BONE (OSEOUS) TISSUE SKIN CANCER TYPES  Dense Matrix, supportive connective  Basal cell carcinoma tissue - least malignant  Consists special cells -most common type  Produce solid matrix of calcium salt -arises from stratum basale deposits and collagen fibers  Squamous cell carcinoma PARTS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM - Metastasizes to lymph nods if not  Bones (skeleton) removed  Joints - arises frim stratum spinosum  Cartilages  Malignant melanoma  Ligaments - Cancer of melanocytes  Tendons - most deadly of skin cancers TWO SUBDIVISIONS OF THE -Detection uses ABCD rule SKELETON ABCD RULE  Axial Skeleton  A= Asymmetry - (80 bones) - two sides of pigmented mole do not -skull match - vertebral column  B= Border irregularity - thoracic cage - Borders of mole are not smooth  Appendicular Skeleton  C= Color - 126 bones - Different colors in pigmented area - limbs - pictoral, pelvic girdles * TOTAL OF: 206 Bones - appears from the bone surface TWO BASIC TYPES OF BONE TISSUE - where tendons and ligaments attach at  Compact Bone artecubhans with other bones - dense and looks smooth  Depressions/ cavities - homogeneous - indentations  Spongy Bone - Focal tissue - small needle like pieces of bone ANATOMY OF LONG BONE - many open spaces  Diaphysis (shift) CLASSIFICATION OF BONES BASED -makes up most of bone lenghts ON SHAPES - composed of compact bones  Long - covered & protected by a fibrous  Short connective tissue membrane (periosteum)  Flat  Epiphysis ( ends)  Irregular - found in adult bones  Sutural - thin line of bony tissue  Seasmoid - composed mostly of spongy bone LONG BONES enclosed by thin layer of compact bone  Typically, larger than they wide  Metaphysics  Shaft with heads situated at both - when diaphysis and epiphysis meet ends -Periousteum  Contains mostly compact bone  Perforating (sharpey’s) Fibers  All bones of the limbs (except: wrist, - secure periosteum to underlying bone ankle, and knee)  Endostreum Ex: femur and tibia - on the inside that the medullary  Responsible for articulation (marrow), blood cells, osteoblast,osteogen, SHORT BONES osteoclast, osteocytes  Generally cubed-shaped - lines the inner surface of the shaft  Contain mostly spongy bone - made of connective tissue  Includes bones of wrist and ankle  Articular Cartilage SUTURAL BONES - covers external surface of epiphyses  Are small, irregular bones made of hyaline cartilage  Found in the flat bone - decreases friction at joint surface IRREGULAR BONES  Epiphyseal plate  Irregular shape - flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in  The structure of the bone makes it young, growing bone both strong and light weight - where bone develops  20% of an adults body weight is bone  Epiphyseal line  Vertebrae & hip bones - seen in adult bones SEASMOID BONES  Marrow ( Medular Cavity)  Special type of short bone - cavity inside of the shaft  Form within tendons (patella) - contains yellow marrow (fats) in adults  Provide support with little to no - contains red marrow for blood cell movement formation in infants until age 6-7  Blood- essential for bone’s nutrient BONE MARKINGS supply and gas exchange  Site of attachments for muscles, BONE MARKINGS tendons & ligaments - Surface, feature of bones)  Passages for blood vessels and  Tunnels- passages for nerves and nerves blood vessels  Projection/ Projection  SPONGY BONE - Bones grow in width ( oppositional STRUCTURE OF SPONGY BONES growth) - does not have osteons * Appositional growth ( growth from - matrix forms on open nettwork of outside) trabaculae - bones grow in width - trabaculae has no blood vessels - osteoblast in periosteum add bone - the spaces between trabaculae is filled matrix to the outside of diaphysis with red bone and yellow bone marrow * Interstitial growth ( growth from MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF COMPACT within) BONE - bones expand  OSTEON ( HARVESIAN SYSTEM) - Lacunae bound chondrytes divide - unit of bone containing central canal and and secrete new matrix matrix rings TYPES OF BONE CELLS - structural and functional unit of bone  OSTEOPROGENITOR CELLS  CENTRAL (HARVESIAN) CANAL - can be found in endesteum - opening in the center of an osteon - (harvesian) system - carries blood vessels and nerves  LACUNAE - rings around the central canal - sites of lacunae  CANALICULI -tiny canals - radiate from the central canal to lacunae -form a transport system correcting all bones cells to a nutrient supply FORMATION OF THE HUMAN SKELETON  In embryo, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage  During development, much of the cartilage is replaced by bone  Cartilage remains in isolated areas, strong flexible tissue Ex: bridge of nose, parts of ribs, sternum JOINTS>> OSTEOGENESIS>> FORMATION DEVELOPMENT  OSSIFICATION - process of replacing bones - tissues with bones  BONE GROWTH - epiphyseal plate allow for lengthwise growth of long bones during childhood - bones are remodeled and lenghten until growth stages -Bones are remodeled in responses to 2 factors:  Blood calcium levels  Pull of gravity & muscles of skeleton