American Culture, History & Society PDF

H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg AMERICAN CULTURE, HISTORY AND SOCIETY First Session A cultural narrative establishes the world in which an ordinary story makes sense. Thus a cultural narrative is not di...

H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg AMERICAN CULTURE, HISTORY AND SOCIETY First Session A cultural narrative establishes the world in which an ordinary story makes sense. Thus a cultural narrative is not directly told. Indeed, the culture itself seems to be telling the cultural narratives. MYTHS THAT MADE AMERICA Christoph Columbus „finding“ America. America is „free” Pocahontas The Promised Land (Moses) The Melting Pot (America is the Land of immigration) – erases cultural diversity. The Founding Father WHAT DEOS AMERICAN CULTURE INCLUDE Exceptionalism Ideology Race / ethnicity / genders Class / age Intersectionality Representation THE WALDSEEMÜLLER MAP the Waldseemüller wall map dated 1507, depicts the Americas, Africa, Europe, Asia, and the Pacific Ocean separating Asia from the Americas, by the Italian Amerigo Vespucci 1 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg THE MELTING POT…PRELIMINARY REMARKS “BEGINNINGS: PRE-HISTORY TO 1763” – SESSION 2 Human settlement in North America began 15000 years ago, as Siberians came to Alaska. Migration continued and these first Americans spread eastward and southward. THE ANASAZI - In New Mexico (1100 – 1300 AC) - Their settlements were called “pueblo”. - One of the earliest cultures - Their name comes from a Navajo-word (ancient enemies) - They occupied a point where Colorado – New Mexico – Arizona – Utah join. - They abandoned major cities like Mesa Verde and Chaco at end of the 13th century. - They made artistic pottery and tightly woven baskets. “Basket makers” - They migrated to the Río Grande Valley, Hopi, Zuni, Acoma and other pueblos in Arizona and New Mexico. In fact, modern scientists have extended the historical timeline of the Ancestral Puebloans to at least 1700 and, often, right up to the present to encompass the modern Puebloan descendants of the Ancient Ones. - At their peak, the Anasazi built adobe-walled towns in nearly inaccessible areas, which made the communities easy to defend. The towns featured apartment houses, community courts, and buildings for religious ceremonies. - Nobody really know s why they died out. - Probably because of drought or Indians conquered or drove them out. - Their culture was developed wide enough to still be relevant today. 2 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg THE MOUND BUILDERS: CAHOKIA MOUNDS “WOODHENGE” (Named after their habit of erecting large earthworks) - East of the Anasazi (today’s St. Louis) - Groups of early Americans who became known as Mound Builders, after their habit of erecting large earthworks that served as tombs and foundations for temples and other public buildings.1 group was known as the “Woodland Culture”. - Their mounds, which took decades to build, reached more than seven stories in height and were surrounded by earthwork walls as long as 500 yards. Their largest of mounds was near what’s now the southern Ohio town of Hopewell. - The largest Mound Builder settlement was on the Illinois side of the Mississippi River, it was called Cahokia. - Around 1100 Cahokia covered 6 square miles and may have been home to as many as 30,000 people. Cahokia was about the same size as London was in 1100. - The residents of Cahokia had a knack for astronomy building and human sacrifice. Like pyramids of cultures in Mexico, were four-sided, had a flat top, and covered as much ground as the biggest pyramids of Egypt - They left at 1200 AC; because of climate change and conflicts. - By 1350, the city was abandoned, an early victim of the ills of urban growth. - Gifts: foods such as potatoes, sweet potatoes, artichokes, squash, turkey, tomatoes, vanilla,… REGIONS AND TRIBES  Founding myths seen as one big misconception  Tribes established diplomatic relations and had trading networks and fought wars.  Leaders of 5 large tribes came together in New York around 1450 to form an alliance: The Iroquis Federation  Around the year 1500 = ~7-10 million people lived in North America. Millions more were in South America (Mayan, Aztec, Inca)  These civilizations were unknown in Europe. THE HAUDENOSAUNEE CONFEDERACY  Democracy established several decades before the Declaration of Independence.  The Haudenosaunee Confederacy, also known as the Iroquois Confederacy, is an alliance of six Native American nations: Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. It was established to promote peace and mutual decision-making among the member nations. The confederacy is one of the oldest participatory democracies in the world.  The Hiawatha Wampum Belt is a significant symbol of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. It represents the unity and peace agreement among the original five nations 3 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg LEIF ERICSSONS’S ROUTE (LEIF THE LUCKY) Around 1000: the Vikings arrive in North America They established a short-lived settlement “Newfoundland”, Canada. Viking Bjarni Herjolfsson sailed from Iceland to hook up with his dad and missed Greenland. Herjolfsson was followed about 15 years later by the son of Eric the Red, the Viking who had settled Greenland. Eric’s son, Leif Ericsson, was also known as Leif the Lucky, he landed in what’s now Labrador, Canada. Mistaking seasonal berries for grapes, Leif called the area Vinland. He spent the winter in the new land and then left. 1492 – MORE EUROPEANS CAME TO AMERICA - For centuries, European explorers, beginning with Christopher Columbus in 1492, sought a navigable passage as a possible trade route to Asia, but were blocked by North, Central, and South America, by ice, or by rough waters. Never returned. - Thinking was: North America is strip of land behind which mountainous area, behind access to sea. Reason: Columbus thought that globe is 1/3rd smaller than it actually was. - John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto, 1450-1498(?)) 1st European after the Vikings to set foot on North America in 1497. Sailed for Henry VII of England. Search for North-West passage - Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca's (born 1490, Spain) He was the first person to traverse the North American continent north of Mexico, essentially on foot, following the 32nd parallel all the way to the Pacific (according to the institute map, it was the 29th parallel). - In early 1527, he joined a royal expedition from Spain with the goal of establishing a presence on the North American mainland. Following a hurricane that damaged their fleet off the coast of Cuba, the expedition acquired a new boat and set sail for Florida. They arrived in March 1528, near what is now Tampa Bay, which their leader, Pánfilo de Narváez, claimed as Spanish territory. 4  H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS FOUR VOYAGES (1492, 1493, 1498, 1502) - Christopher Columbus (from Italy) led three ships (the ‘Nina’, the ‘Pinta’, the Santa Maria) out of a Spanish port on August 3, 1492. His objective was to sail west until he reached the Indies where he hoped to find gold, pearls, and spice. - The journal of his first voyage to America has been lost. What we have is an abstract of the journal written by Bartolome de las Casas in the 1530s. - On October 12, 1492, after a five-week voyage, Columbus landed on an island in the Caribbean / Greater Antilles. He named the island Guanahani (in Taino language) ‘Hispaniola’ (“little Spain;“ today: Haiti/Dominican Republic) - According to reports from royal commissioners, Columbus was arrested during his third voyage to the New World because of gross mismanagement and brutality – Columbus used torture and mutilation as habitual governing tools. However, the Spanish Crown also funded his fourth and last voyage to the ‘New World.’ Leopore: Columbus worked on Portuguese slave ships from 1482. Around age 33 in 1484, he proposed a westward route to Asia to the King of Portugal, but it was rejected. Portugal preferred ventures in West Africa, and scholars noted Columbus underestimated the distance. Meanwhile, Bartolomeu Dias proved the viability of reaching the Indian Ocean by sailing around the southern tip of Africa in 1487. Columbus then approached the King and Queen of Spain. Initially rejected due to ongoing religious wars, the monarchs later granted approval in 1492 after the final Muslim stronghold in Spain fell. Ferdinand and Isabella, confident in their Inquisition's success, ordered Columbus to sail west, trade, spread Christianity, and document his journey in a diary. 5 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg COLUMBIA OR VESPUCCIA? - Print depicting Christopher Columbus bidding farewell to Queen Isabella an his departure for the New Word, August 3, 1492. - Amerigo Vespucci was an Italian navigator. He explored the east coast of South America and became the namesake for an entire continent: America. - born in Florence in 1454. Vespucci took part in several voyages of discovery to America between 1499 and 1504. - It was still believed that India had been discovered. Vespucci wrote a famous travel report and realized that this was a new continent. - He was thus one of the first to believe that the land discovered was a continent in its own right. Vespucci travelled mainly along the east coast of South America. - He gave Venezuela its name. The word means "little Venice" in Spanish. Vespucci called it that because the inhabitants he saw lived in pile dwellings (Pfahlbauten). He also named Rio de Janeiro after discovering the place on 1 January 1502. It means "January River". - Universalis Cosmographia, Martin Waldseemüller’s wall map, dated 1507, depicts the Americas, Africa, Europe, Asia, and the Pacific Ocean separating Asia from the Americas (named after the Florentine cartographer Amerigo Vespucci). almost 3 m2, in Washington Library of Congress. In 1513, the Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed Central America, namely in what is now Panama, and sighted the Pacific Ocean. It was thus clear that this was a new continent. (Columbus believed he just found a sea route to India while Vespucci had at first no proof that he found a new continent. Radkarte: Geostete T-O-Karte (Oriens „Osten“ ist oben, Sepentrio „Norden“ links): die Erde ist umflossen vom Mare Oceanum „Ozeanisches Meer“, die drei Kontinente sind geteilt durch das Mare magnum sive mediterraneum „großes oder mittelländisches Meer“. Jeder Kontent wird hier einem der drei Söhne Noahs (Sem, Ham, Japhet) zugeteilt (d.h. ist von deren Nachkommen bewohnt). Aus der ersten gedruckten Ausgabe von Isidor von Sevillas Etymologiae, vermutlich die älteste gedruckte Karte überhaupt. 6 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg LOUIS MONTROSE - "THE WORK OF GENDER IN THE DISCOURSE OF DISCOVERY" Louis Montrose, "The Work of Gender in the Discourse of Discovery," in New World Encounters, ed. Stephen Greenblatt, University of California, 1993, pp. 179-180: By the 1570's, allegorical personifications of America as a female nude with feathered headdress had begun to appear in engravings and paintings, on maps and title pages, throughout Western Europe. Perhaps the most resonant of such images if Jan van der Straet's drawing of Vespucci's discovery of America, widely disseminated in print in the late sixteenth century by means of Theodor Galle's engraving. Here a naked woman, crowned with feathers, upraises herself from her hammock to meet the gaze of the armored and robed man who has just come ashore; she extends her right arm toward him, apparently/ p. 180 gesture of wonder --or, perhaps, of apprehension. Standing with his feet firmly planted upon the ground, Vespucci observes the personified and feminized space that will bear his name. This recumbent figure, now discovered and roused from her torpor, is about to be hailed, claimed, and possessed as America. As the motto included in Galle's engraving puts it, "Americen Americus retexit, & Semel vocavit inde semper excitam" -- "Americus rediscovers America; he called her once and thenceforth she was always awake." This theme is discreetly amplified by the presence of a sloth, which regards the scene of awakening from its own shaded spot upon the tree behind America. Vespucci carries with him the various empowering ideological and technological instruments of civilization, exploration, and conquest: a cruciform staff with a banner bearing the Southern Cross, a navigational astrolabe, and a sword-- the mutually reinforcing emblems of belief, empirical knowledge, and violence. At the left, behind Vespucci, the prows of the ships that facilitate the expansion of European hegemony enter the pictorial space of the New World; on the right, behind America, representatives of the indigenous fauna are displayed as if emerging from an American interior at once natural and strange. Close to the picture's vanishing point --in the distance, yet at the center-- a group of naked savages, potential subjects of the civilizing process, are preparing a cannibal feast. A severed human haunch is being cooked over the fire; another, already spitted, awaits its turn. America's body pose is partially mirrored by both the apparently female figure who turns the spit and the clearly female figure who cradles an infant as she awaits the feast. Most strikingly, the form of the severed human leg and haunch turning upon the spit precisely inverts and miniaturizes America's own. In terms of the pictorial space, this scene of cannibalism is perspectivally distanced, pushed into the background; in terms of the pictorial surface, however, it is placed at the center of the visual field, between the mutual gazes of Americus and America, and directly above the latter's outstretched arm.... /p. 181 The elements of savagery, deceit, and cannibalism central to the emergent European discourse on the inhabitants of the New World are already in place in this very early example. Of particular significance here is the blending of thse basic ingredients of protocolonialist ideology with a crude and anxious misogynistic fantasy, a powerful cunjunction of the savage and the feminine. Michel de Certeau, The Writing of History, pp. xxv-xxvi: Amerigo Vespucci the voyager arrives from the sea. A crusader standing erect, his body in armor, he bears the European weapons of meaning [a cruciform staff with a banner bearing the Southern Cross, a navigational astrolabe, and a sword --each of these referring to discourses of mastery --religious truth, scientific truth, and military power]. Behind him are the vessels that will bring back to the European West the spoils of a paradise. Before him is the Indian "America," a nude woman reclining in her hammock, an unnamed presence of difference, a body which awakens within a space of exotic fauna and flora. An inaugural scene: after a moment of stupor, 7 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg on this threshold dotted with colonnades of trees, the conqueror will write the body of the other and trace there his own history. From her he will make a historied body --a blazon-- of his labors and phantasms. She will be "Latin" America. This erotic and warlike scene has an almost mythic value. It represents the beginning of a new function of writing in the West. Jan Van der Straet's staging of the disembarkment surely depicts Vespucci's surprise as he faces this world, the first to grasp clearly that she is a nouva terra not yet existing on maps --an unknown body destined to bear the name, Amerigo, of its inventor. But what is really initiated here is a colonization of the body by the discourse of power, This is writing that conquers. It will use the New World as if it were a blank, "savage" page on which Western desire will be written. It will transform the space of the other /p.xxvi into a field of expansion for a system of production. For the moment of a rupture between a subject and an object of the operation, between a will to write and a written body (or a body to be written), this writing fabricates Western history.... SUSANNE RIESER’s American Culture Lecture:: 1619 copperplate by Theodor Galle: Amerigo Vespucci’s encounter with an allegorical female figure that represents the continent named after him (> “marriage”) Vespucci is equipped with all the insignia of a European conqueror (flag, cross, astrolabe), while a voluptuous America lies naked on a hammock, stretching out her (empty!) hand and beckoning the visitor to come closer. She is part of a pastoral scene, tempting, seductive.... A closer look reveals gruesome details: In the background of the pic, Natives are roasting something over a fireplace - a human leg, and another leg can be seen next to the fireplace. Eroticism + cannibalism here appear side by side, and the dangers of intercultural contact are envisioned… the other-ness of those people is tempting and threatening at the same time and thus seems beyond the Europeans control: Could America seduce Vespucci to the fireplace where he will be roasted?? At the same time the scene of seduction conceals European colonial aggression towards the indigenous population behind a myth of erotic encounter, perhaps even love, correlating the relationship between Europeans + Natives with the allegedly “natural” order of the sexes: the distinguished European male is to the Native as a man is to a woman – i.e. superior 1. America shown as a naked woman by the 1570's, allegorical personifications. 2. Europe, Asia, Africa and now America – were portrayed as women surrounded by the representative attributes of their respective parts of the world”. 3. Allegorical personifications of America as a female nude with feathered headdress. 4. Jan van der Straet's drawing of Vespucci's discovery widely disseminated in the late sixteenth century. 5. Image depicting a naked woman with feathers, Vespucci observing the personified America. 6. Motto: "Americus rediscovers America; he called her once and thenceforth she was always awake." 7. Vespucci carrying ideological and technological instruments of civilization, exploration, and conquest. 8. Ships facilitating European hegemony entering the New World. 9. Indigenous fauna representatives displayed behind America. Group of naked savages preparing a cannibal feast in the background. Scene of cannibalism perspectivally distanced but at the center of the visual field. 10. Elements of savagery, deceit, and cannibalism central to the emerging European discourse. Blending of colonialist ideology with misogynistic fantasy. Michel de Certeau's description of Vespucci as a crusader with European weapons of meaning. 11. Representation of the Indian "America" as a nude woman reclining in her hammock. 12. Vespucci's role in writing the body of the other and tracing his own history. The beginning of a new function of writing in the West. Colonization of the body by the discourse of power. 13. Jan Van der Straet's staging of Vespucci's disembarkment representing a rupture between subject and object. 14. The writing that conquers, using the New World as a blank page for Western desire. 15. Susan Rieser's mention of the 1619 copperplate by Theodor Galle depicting Vespucci's encounter. 16. Details of the image, including Vespucci equipped as a conqueror and a naked America on a hammock. 17. Gruesome details revealed in the background, Natives roasting a human leg. 18. Eroticism and cannibalism appearing side by side, envisioning the dangers of intercultural contact. 8 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg 19. The scene of seduction concealing European colonial aggression behind a myth of erotic encounter. 20. Correlating the relationship between Europeans and Natives with the alleged "natural" order of the sexes. VIRGIN LAND/VACUUM DOMICILIUM English theory that Native lands were vacant because they lacked fixed habitations and fenced fields. Used to justify acquisition of Native lands. THE NOVELTY OF AMERICA WAS ALWAYS PERCEIVED IN OVERTLY SEXUAL TERMS - Peter Hulme, Colonial Encounters - In order to understand this…. we need to contextualize Pocahontas in a discourse that at the time of the first English settlements depicted the Americas as an allegorically feminized space. These representations were part of a “full allegorical tradition in which continents – Europe, Asia, Africa and now America – were portrayed as women surrounded by the representative attributes of their respective parts of the world” (Hulme, Polytropic Man, 17) ARMADA - 1588: Spanish Armada defeated, boosting England's power. Queen Elizabeth I issues charters for Virginia colonies. Queen Elizabeth I (1558 – 1603) resting her hand on the New World, laying claim on North America - Walter Raleigh names the territory "VIRGINIA" in honor of Queen Elizabeth. Executed in 1618. The name implies a feminized space awaiting European colonization, suggesting a sexualized bond between traveler and territory. - By 1607, Virginia is perceived as a mysterious feminine space to be discovered and conquered by English settlers. - The invasion of North America begins in 1565 with the Spanish in Florida, followed by the British in 1587 at Roanoke, Virginia. - Jamestown, established by the London Company in 1606, marks a significant presence. The French found Quebec in 1608, and the Dutch establish a colony in present-day New York in 1609. Native Americans resist European expansion but face challenges from new diseases and the slave trade. 9 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg PILGRIM’S PROCESS By 1604, however, when England and Spain signed a tenuous peace treaty, the English had good reasons to think about branching out to the new lands of the West. Reasons to branch out to the new lands of the West: Economic incentive Overpopulation Religious dissent Wool England in the 16th century: Initially poor and timid towards opportunities in the New World. 1604 peace treaty with Spain prompts English interest in the West. - Economic incentive: Formation of a middle class investing in joint-stock companies for New World ventures. - Overpopulation: Desire for less-crowded lands among Englishmen. - Religious dissent: English Protestants seeking a place in America for their own version of Christianity. - Woolen industry boom in late 1500s and early 1600s leads to tenant farmers seeking a new life in the New World. - Colonists shift economic focus locally, challenging England's imperial system. - Mercantilism theory views colonies as part of a single economic unit controlled from London. - Navigation Acts from 1651 to 1733 integrate North American and West Indian trade into the imperial economy. - Mercantilism stimulates colonial economic activity but doesn't prevent colonists from pursuing their own interests. - Achieving independence seen as a process rather than a single event. JAMESTOWN 1607 – THE GROWTH OF COLONIAL SETTLEMENT European settlement began in the region around Chesapeake Bay and in the Northeast, then spread south and west into the Appalachian Mountains.  The first English colony in America, Jamestown, faced initial chaos.  The Virginia Company of London, given a charter by King James I, settled there in 1607.  Facing challenges like malaria and unfriendly Native Americans, half the settlers died within six months.  John Smith's leadership helped the surviving colonists, preventing a potential disaster during the "starving time" of 1609.  The colony struggled until John Rolfe introduced a profitable tobacco crop in 1613.  In 1619, significant events included the arrival of 90 women, the establishment of the House of Burgesses as the first legislative body, and the introduction of African slaves to work in the tobacco fields. So in 1619 3 important things happened:  Arrival of 90 women, who became the brides of settlers who paid for their passage at a cost of 120 pounds of tobacco each.  the meeting of the first legislative body of colonists on the continent (House of Burgesses)  The arrival of Duch ship 10 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg MAKING NATIVE AMERICAN FRIENDS Making Native American friends Those who survived did so largely because of a character named John Smith. An experienced and courageous adventurer, Smith was also a shameless self-promoter and a world-class liar, with a knack for getting into trouble. On the voyage over, for example, he was charged with mutiny, although he was eventually acquitted. But whatever his faults, Smith was both gutsy and diplomatic. He managed to make friends with Powhatan, the chief of the local Native Americans, and the tribe provided the colonists with enough food to hold on. Smith provided much- needed leadership, declaring, “He that will not work neither shall he eat.” Without Smith, the colony may not have survived. As it was, Jamestown came pretty close to disaster. In the winter of 1609, called “the starving time,” conditions got so bad colonists resorted to eating anything they could get — including each other. One man was executed after eating the body of his dead wife. In 1610, the survivors were actually on a ship and ready to head home when a military relief expedition showed up and took charge. Finding a cash crop: One of the biggest problems the colonists faced was coming up with a product that people in England wanted and which could form the basis of a profitable economy. They found one in 1613, when a fellow named John Rolfe developed a variety of tobacco that was a huge hit in the mother country. Within a few years, Jamestown had a thriving cash crop. In 1619, three things happened in the Virginia colony that had a large impact on the British in America. One was the arrival of 90 women, who became the brides of settlers who paid for their passage at a cost of 120 pounds of tobacco each. The second was the meeting of the first legislative body of colonists on the continent. Known as the House of Burgesses, it met for about a week, passed laws against gambling and idleness, and decreed all colonists must attend two church services each Sunday — and bring their weapons with them. Then the legislators adjourned because it was too hot to keep meeting. The third event — three weeks after the House of Burgesses had become a symbol of representative government in the New World — was the arrival of a Dutch ship. From its cargo, Jamestown settlers bought 20 human beings from Africa to work in the tobacco fields (see Figure 3-1). SLAVERY Jamestown was not the beginning of slavery; Already by mid C16, slaves were seized from tribes in Africa and sold by European and Arab traders. Between 1600 and 1800, 1 Mio Europeans migrated to British America – and 2.5 Mio Africans were carried there by force. Portuguese initiated African slave raids in the mid-15th century, followed by the Spanish. John Hawkins, an English sea captain by the mid-16th century, engaged in a thriving slave trade between Africa and the Caribbean. Slaves were sourced from various methods, including raids, trade, and capture in wars. Despite successful use in Southern colonies for tobacco farming, Northern colonies employed Africans as domestic servants or unpaid laborers in trades. While some groups, like the Mennonites in Pennsylvania and individuals like Judge Samuel Sewall in New England, opposed slavery in the late 17th century, such voices were limited. Colonial governments institutionalized slavery through laws, such as Virginia's in 1662 making slaves' children automatic slaves. By the late 17th century, African slaves were seen as a more costeffective labor source than European servants, leading to a significant increase in slave numbers. Virginia's slave population grew from about 2,000 in 1670 to 12,000 in 1708, indicating the establishment and growth of slavery in the colonies. 11 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg PILGRIMS Pilgrims (“Saints”): Church of England too catholic for their taste. - Separatists. King James I: “rejoin or separate from England!” They left for Holland (1608), back to England, and then for America. Sept 16, 1620: 102 persons → Mayflower → 65 days later → Plymouth. Mayflower Compact William Bradford THE MAYFLOWER COMPACT: The Mayflower Compact - as it is known today - was signed by those 41 “true” Pilgrims on 11 November, 1620, and became the first governing document of Plymouth Colony. It declared that the colonists were loyal to the King of England, that they were Christians who served God, that they would make fair and just laws, and that they would work together for the good of the Colony. The men also chose John Carver as Plymouth Colony’s first governor. The women and “strangers” were not allowed to vote. Visiting Plymouth Rock in Massachusetts SQUANTO  In 1605, Squanto (Tisquantum, Pawtuxet Tribe) was taken to England, possibly as a slave, by a passing explorer named George Weymouth.  In 1613, he returned to the New World as a guide for Capt. John Smith and remained there. A short time later, however, Squanto was abducted by yet another English expedition and sold as a slave in Spain.  This time he escaped. He made his way to England and eventually onto a 1619 expedition to New England, only to find his tribe had been exterminated by disease, most probably brought by the white newcomers.  So, when the Pilgrims arrived, Squanto spoke fluent English, a little Spanish, and was essentially rootless. He was also apparently extremely tolerant. Until he died a little more than a year after their arrival, Squanto stayed with the Pilgrims, acting as their interpreter and advisor. Talk about a good sport. 12 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg PILGRIMS AND PURITANS It’s easy to confuse the Pilgrims and the Puritans. Both groups moved to journey to America for religious reasons. The Puritans were less radical and less interested in leaving the Church of England than in “purifying” it. Led by John Winthrop, the Puritans sought to purify the Church of England rather than separate from it. In 1630, about 500 Puritans, armed with a charter allowing independence, settled in the Massachusetts Bay colony, establishing Boston. By 1642, around 20,000 Puritans had left England for America. They engaged in fur, fishing, and shipbuilding industries, established a system of compulsory free education, and developed crafts like silversmithing. Despite their contributions, the Puritans were puritanical, punishing religious dissidents and enforcing strict moral codes, including the death penalty for adultery until 1632. The impact of Puritan society in New England extended to the roots of the modern corporate system, representative government, the American legal system, and the moral conflict between individual freedom and authority. The text then transitions to witch hunting in America, starting with accusations in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1692. Initially stemming from girls' fabrications, the hysteria led to 20 executions, with 28 convictions in total. Governor William Phips halted the witch trials, dispelling the widespread belief that witches were burned at the stake, as was common in Europe. Which tests: The dunking test: if the person floated, she was a witch. If she drowned, she was not a witch… The touch test: A blindfolded person would touch the body of a supposed witch. If the blindfolded person freaked out, the suspect was a witch… A suspect was a witch if they had a birthmark or bruises… COLLEGES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURY  1636 Harvard College  1693 College of William & Mary  1701 Yale College  1740/1749 Charity School of Philadelphia/Academy of Philadelphia (University of Pennsylvania)  1746 College of New Jersey (Princeton University)  1754 King’s College (Columbia University)  1764 College of Rhode Island (Brown University)  1766 Queen’s College (Rutgers University)  1769 Dartmouth College Die Gründung neuer Colleges und Universitäten – darunter mehrere der heutigen Ivy League-Institutionen – durch Anhänger der konkurrierenden. Konfessionen erweitert bis zur Amerikanischen Revolution das Spektrum des durch die Gründung der Harvard University, des College of William & Mary und der Yale University in seinen Grundzügen etablierten U.S.- amerikanischen Universitätssystems. Die Universitäten gewährleisten die Ausbildung intellektuellen und politischen Elite der Revolutionszeit und Frühen Republik nach neuen, am Gedankengut der Aufklärung und der klassischen Philologie ausgerichteten Kurrikula. 13 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg PURITANS: Believed religion should influence society and politics. Outlawed holidays like Christmas and Easter. Forbade Sunday sports, cockfighting, boxing, card playing, gambling, mixed dancing, and theaters. Allowed moderate alcohol consumption but banned toasting. Encouraged sexuality within marriage. Permitted divorce, with 1 in 6 based on male impotence. Punished extramarital sexuality with fines and humiliation. Considered engaging in homosexual behavior a serious crime. THE GREAT AWAKENING (1740S-60S) Important process of nation building George Whitefield: “America’s first superstar” Massachusetts and Connecticut: revival meetings / camp meetings (open air): Demanding renewal of religious life in mass services. Jonathan Edwards of Massachusetts, “Sinners in the Hand of an Angry God (1741); highly emotional rhetoric, mastering John Locke and other Enlightenment thinkers, reasserting orthodox Christian doctrine including a Calvinist view of God’s omnipotence and human sinfulness. Puritans – divine purpose; America a New Zion In the 1730s, a reaction to changing religious attitudes led to the Great Awakening: Catalyst: Jonathan Edwards, a brilliant theologian and speaker. Edwards's message: Emphasized the love of God and internal goodness for happiness. Impact: Sparked religious discussions, leading to new denominations and increased tolerance. Great Itinerant: George Whitefield, a Georgia-based minister, drew massive crowds with his dramatic preaching style. Whitefield's influence: America's first superstar, touring extensively and leaving a lasting impact. Lasting effects: New denominations started colleges, fostering religious tolerance. The Great Awakening contributed to the breakdown of colonial barriers and unified them. It empowered individuals to question the status quo, leaving a deep and lasting impact on American society. Great Awakening: Die Zeit zwischen den 1730er und 1760er Jahren ist in den britischen Kolonien in Nordamerika von geistesgeschichtlichen und politischen Bewegungen und Umbrüchen bestimmt, welche die Amerikanische Revolution vorbereiten. Die religiöse Erweckungsbewegung um 1740 – sog. Great Awakening – und deren heilsgeschichtlich-millenniaristische Erwartungen sind ein wichtiger Faktor im Prozess der Nationwerdung der USA. Die Ausgangspunkte dieser Erweckungsbewegung liegen in den ländlichen Gegenden des Connecticut Valley in Massachusetts und Connecticut, wo ab den 1730er Jahren eine Erneuerung des religiösen Lebens in Massenversammlungen und Gottesdiensten unter freiem Himmel (revival meetings/camp meetings) gefordert wird. Zu den bekanntesten Predigern zählt Jonathan Edwards aus Northampton, MA, dessen Predigt »Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God« (1741) das bekannteste Beispiel der emotionalen Rhetorik der Erweckungsbewegung ist. In New Jersey bringen William Tennent und Theodore Frelinghuysen Tausende von Gläubigen in Gebetsversammlungen (refreshings) zusammen. Andere Prediger wie z. B. James Davenport geben der religiösen Bewegung durch sozial- und besonders aristokratiekritische Untertöne eine stärker politische Dimension. Seinen Höhepunkt erreicht die Erweckungsbewegung nach der Ankunft des englischen Wanderpredigers George Whitefield 1739. Whitefields mehrjährige Tour durch die englischen Kolonien von Massachusetts bis Carolina lässt die Bewegung bis in die 1750er Jahre zu einer populären Massenbewegung mit oftmals mehr als 20.000 Besuchern pro Veranstaltung aus allen Gruppierungen und Schichten der kolonialen Gesellschaft werden. 14 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (1754 – 1763) // SEVEN YEARS’ WAR (1756 – 1763) The war’s North American phase involved French and British troops, colonial militias, and each side’s Indian allies. Underscoring this latter aspect, the English colonists called the conflict the French and Indian War. English leader William Pitt. Defeat of the French in Quebec 1750, surrender of Montreal 1760. Nach der Eroberung von Quebec und Montreal durch britische Truppen 1759 und 1760 kommt die französische Kolonialherrschaft in Nordamerika mit dem Vertrag von Paris 1763 an ihr Ende. In den Verträgen von Paris (1763) und San Ildefonso (1762) tritt Frankreich alle Gebiete südlich der Großen Seen und östlich des Mississippi an Großbritannien ab. Spanien übergibt Florida an Großbritannien und erhält von Frankreich die Gebiete des Louisiana-Territoriums westlich des Mississippis und südlich von Kanada. Als unmittelbare Folge der britischen Übernahme Kanadas, die bereits 1713 durch die Eroberung der Kolonie Acadie (in der heutigen Provinz Nova Scotia) eingeleitet wird, flüchten viele französische Kolonisten in den heutigen Bundesstaat Louisiana, wo die französische Kolonialgeschichte in Nordamerika bis in die Gegenwart in der frankophonen Kultur der Cajuns nachwirkt. Treaty of Paris 1763 confirmed England’s imperial dominance in North America westward to the Mississippi River. The North American phase of the war involved French and British troops, colonial militias, and Indian allies on both sides, leading the English colonists to call it the French and Indian War. The fighting covered the Ohio Valley, Great Lakes, northern New York, and the St. Lawrence region. Despite initial British struggles, a new leader named William Pitt turned the tide, leading to victories in Quebec in 1759 and Montreal in 1760. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 confirmed England's dominance in North America up to the Mississippi River. However, the removal of the French threat increased tensions in the American colonies. o British rule felt burdensome without an external enemy. Relations worsened as the Proc- o lamation of 1763 restricted westward expansion for colonists, angering them. Additionally, Britain granted religious freedom to French Catholics in newly acquired territories, causing further resentment. To address war debt, Parliament increased colonial taxes, setting the stage for a showdown. 15 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg Session 3: THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE AND THE CONSTITUTION RESULT OF THE FRENCH INDIAN WAR 1754-1763 DIVORCE WITH BRITAIN Desires of Colonists: o Protection by the world's largest navy. o Access to good trade routes. o Freedom and rights, which were scarce globally. British Financial Strain: o Britain couldn't afford to provide continued support. o High debts incurred defending colonies against the French and Native Americans. Disagreements on Parliamentary Role: o Colonists downplayed Parliament's importance. Brits viewed Parliament as the most crucial governing body, ruling both Britain and the colonies. Representation Issues: Colonies not represented in Parliament. British lawyer John Otis emphasized, "Taxation without representation is tyranny" Imposition of Taxes: Britain decided to impose taxes on the colonies. No taxation without representation. Proclamation of 1763: King George III issued on Oct. 7th, 1763. Prohibited colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains. Aimed to pacify Native Americans but created challenges for the colonists. Concept of a timeout after the conflict, although well-intentioned, was not practical. Resulting Tensions: Growing discontent and tensions between the colonists and British authorities. 16 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg SUGAR ACT / REVENUE ACTS OF 1765 Prime Minister George Grenville: Colonists should pay for defense! Taxes imposed/raised on sugar, wine, linen, silk (but lowered the tax on molasses). Colonists: objected – Parliament has no right to impose taxes without their consent! They organized boycotts of the taxed goods and started smuggling. STAMP ACT OF 1765 1. Colonists needed to buy special stamped paper for newspapers, diplomas, playing cards, marriage license, other legal documents… even dice! 2. The increase in expenses annoyed people so much! Samuel Adams formed a group of protesters, called the Sons of Liberty, who boycotted British goods and attacked tax collectors. 3. While the Sugar Act served the dual purposes of raising revenue and regulating trade, the Stamp Act was really only there to raise the taxes. QUARTERING ACT OF 1765 Quarters in the sense of housing – Colonial tax-payers had to house and feed British troops who were stationed in the American colonies. TOWNSHEND-ACT 1767 (Townshend Duties) Townshend imposed taxes on various goods (glass, paper, paint, tea). Revenues intended for salaries of royal judges and governors in the colonies. Dropped import duties on some American products entering England, aiming to boost colonial exports. External and internal taxes; Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania (J. Dickinson). To collect the taxes, Townshend sent British troops to Boston Colonial Opposition: Many colonists disliked taxes on tea, a favored commodity. Opposition to funds being used for judges' and governors' salaries. Prior control of official salaries by colonial legislators diminished. Townshend's Assertiveness: Townshend sent two British regiments to Boston in 1768. Resulted in the Boston Massacre, the next confrontation. John Dickinson's Rejection: In his 1767 pamphlet, "Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania," John Dickinson rejected the distinction between internal and external taxes. [Stamp Act = Internal Taxes = Items produced and sold within the colonies] [Sugar Act/Townshend Act = External Taxes = Items Imported] 17 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg Main guiding questions: What led to the revolution? Declaration of Independence The British Acts No taxation without representation What were the consequences of independence for the colonists? Social changes Economic changes Civil war Formation to a new nation Territorial expansion How did the tax that led to revolution and further independence talk about what was happening, i.e., the rhetoric of revolution. Political Pamphlets and Essays: Influential writings, such as Thomas Paine's "Common Sense" (1776), utilized powerful language to advocate for independence. Paine argued that it was common sense for the colonies to break away from British rule. The Declaration of Independence Taxation How can the legal documents of the United States be seen as a discourse and myth-making for the fledgling nation? Creation of National Identity Founding mythology The Declaration of Independence, in particular, constructs a founding mythology for the nation. It articulates the ideals of freedom, equality, and unalienable rights, creating a narrative that shapes the national identity. Political Discourse THE BOSTON MASSACRE (MARCH 5, 1770) The Boston Massacre is the killing of 5 colonists by British troops on March 5th 1770. Paul Revere: The bloody Massacre in King’s Street Revere’s engraving: prod. 3 weeks later Was used as war propaganda Line of soldiers firing at crowd British depicted as aggressors lobsters Soldiers in Boston: o About 4000 poorly paid British soldiers were in the colonies by 1770. o Townshend sent two regiments to Boston. o Some soldiers sought part-time work, leading to conflicts with Bostonians. Boston Massacre (March 5): o Small mob threw rocks and snowballs at a British sentry.20 soldiers with fixed bayonets faced a crowd of 300. o After 30 minutes, a soldier opened fire, resulting in 11 deaths (5 colonists). o Upset American colonists. 18 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg Repeal of Townshend Acts: Townshend Acts repealed by Parliament, except for the tea tax. Aftermath and Naming: Initially called "The Massacre on King Street." Later known as "Boston Massacre." Paul Revere's exaggerated engraving circulated, upsetting colonists. THE BOSTON TEA ACT (DEC 10, 1773) With the passing of the Tea Act, the 17 million pounds of unsold surplus tea the British East India Company owned could be sold to markets in the American colonies. On Dec 16, 1773, 50 men badly disguised as Mohawk Indians boarded three ships in Boston Harbor and destroyed 92.000 pounds of tea. Tea Act (May 10, 1773): o British East India Trading Company granted a tea sales monopoly in the colonies. o Had a surplus of 17 million pounds of tea. o Monopoly aimed to undercut smuggled tea with lower prices. Colonial Resistance: o Colonists resisted despite lower tea prices. o Principle of tax, not tea cost, bothered them. o English tea shipments destroyed or prevented from being sold. Boston Tea Party (December 16, 1773): o Colonists, disguised as Native Americans, boarded 3 ships in Boston Harbor. o Smashed 342 chests of tea, dumped it into the water. o No injuries, minor roughing up for attempting to keep tea. King's Reaction: King George III displeased, urged submission or triumph in colonies. Aftermath: Tragedy publicized widely but moderation prevailed for the next year or two. Moderates argued for potential compromises. THE “COERCIVE ACTS” (“INTOLERABLE ACTS”) - Boston Tea Party Fallout: o Outraged British authorities. o Parliament responded with punitive acts. o Named 'Coercive Acts' or 'Oppressive Acts' in Britain. o Called 'Intolerable Acts' in America. - Impact on Boston: o Closed Boston harbor until colonists paid for damage. o Cut off city from food, medical supplies, and goods. - Governance Changes: o British general installed as governor of Massachusetts. o Massachusetts subjected to direct British rule. - Civil Liberties Impacted: o Repealed liberties like holding town meetings. o Quebec Act passed, granting more freedoms to French subjects in Canada. - Strategic Move: o Majority of Canadians stayed neutral in the American Revolution. o Quebec Act seen as a smart move by the British to gain French support. o Recognized the inevitability of a larger conflict with the Americans. Quebec Act (1774) – provocative for Americans (Ohio River valley); redrawing the boundaries of Catholic Quebec What did the Proclamation of 1763 by King George III. entail? Colonists were prohibited from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains. What is the name of the silversmith who created this engraving of the Boston Massacre? Paul Revere No taxation without representation means… John Otis wanted the colonies to be represented in the British parliament. 19 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg SEPTEMBER 5 – OCTOBER 26, 1774: FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS leaders (all white male!) from all colonies but Georgia gathered in Philadelphia. Denounced the Coercive Acts Approved of boycott of British imports Authorized military preparations But they also professed loyalty to George III, urging him to resist Parliament’s oppressive measures (the Coercive / Intolerable Acts). If not, colonies would not export any goods to GB. Preparations for Second Continental Congress. o Intolerable Acts and Colonial Unity: ▪ Created a sense of unity among the colonies. ▪ First Continental Congress held in Philadelphia (Sep 5 - Oct 26, 1774). ▪ Fifty-six male leaders from all colonies (except Georgia) attended. ▪ Over 30 of them were lawyers. o Congress Actions: ▪ Met in Carpenter’s Hall. ▪ Radicals, democrats, conservatives reached agreements. ▪ Denounced Coercive Acts. ▪ Approved boycotts of British imports. ▪ Authorized military preparations. o Unity Declaration: ▪ Pledged mutual defense if one colony was attacked. ▪ Maintained loyalty to King George III. o Congress Resolutions: ▪ Called for abstinence from tea and wine. ▪ Avoidance of rum, horse races, and cockfighting until issues with England resolved. o Continued Congress: ▪ Decided to hold another Congress in May if the situation did not improve. ▪ Unfortunately, the situation did not improve. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN 1754 o Benjamin Franklin's Cartoon: ▪ Political commentary on the disunity of North American British colonies. ▪ Used to encourage former colonies to unite against British rule. o Symbolism of the Cartoon: ▪ Snake chopped into eight pieces represents the colonies. ▪ Represents South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and New England. o History of the Cartoon: ▪ Created by Benjamin Franklin in 1754. (by the time of the 7 years war) ▪ Originally published to highlight colonies' need for unified support in the Seven Years War. ▪ Republished in 1766 (before the revolution) as a rallying cry for colonies against the British. ▪ Aimed to unite the 'disunited state' of the colonies. o Impact and Reproduction: ▪ Cartoon reproduced in newspapers throughout the new world. ▪ 'JOIN, or DIE' became the rallying cry for the American Revolution. The snake, chopped into eight pieces, represents the colonies (from left to right) 20 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg BUILDING A CASE FOR INDEPENDENCE John Locke, Two Treatises on Civil Government 1. April 19, 1775: Battles at Lexington, Concord 2. War starts with a “shot heard around the world” 3. June 17, 1775: Battle at Bunker Hill (Breeds Hill) 4. July 5, 1775: Continental Congress sends “Olive Branch Petition” to King George: loyalty - but requesting ceasefire; King says no. 5. Continental Army under George Washington 6. Boycott Decision: o Congress decides to boycott all British trade, well-received in America. o British parliament and population grow suspicious of colonists. 7. Declaration of Massachusetts as 'in Rebellion': o February 1775: Parliament declares Massachusetts 'in rebellion.' o General Thomas Gage authorized to crush the uprising. 8. April 19, 1775 - Lexington and Concord: o Redcoats march to Concord, searching for rebel weapons. o Paul Revere and William Dawes warn of British approach. o Shootings erupt in Lexington, eight colonists die. 9. June 17, 1775 - Battle of Bunker Hill: o Battle on Bunker Hill and Breeds Hill near Boston. o British suffer over 1,000 casualties, colonists over 300. 10. Ideological Influences: o Leaders produce pamphlets, essays, and sermons. o Some favor independence, others prefer negotiation. o John Locke's ideas on natural rights inspire many. o Colonists adapt Locke's quote to 'life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.' 11. Second Continental Congress - May 1775 - 1781: o Held in Independence Hall after Lexington and Concord. o Prepares for war, establishes Continental army. o Elects George Washington as Commander-in-Chief. o Drafts Olive Branch Petition seeking peace with King George III. 12. Olive Branch Petition (sign of peace)- July 1775: o Congress sends petition to King George III, requesting a ceasefire. o Pledges loyalty to the king, asserts rights as British citizens. o King George III refuses, declares American colonies in revolt. 21 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg THOMAS PAINE, COMMON SENSE (1776) “III. Thoughts on the Present State of American Affairs” “The cause of America is in a great measure the cause of all mankind” "Without the pen of the author of Common Sense, the sword of Washington would have been raised in vain,” John Adams said. Initial Battles - 1775: o Americans fought for better treatment, not independence. o Still considered themselves fundamentally British. Shift with 'Common Sense' - January 9, 1776: o Thomas Paine's pamphlet 'Common Sense' published anonymously. o Paine questions king's authority based on birth, advocates for a republic. o Calls for equality among citizens and independence from Britain. (was the first one) o Advocates for America as an independent, self-governed country. o Reflects Enlightenment beliefs, spreads rapidly across colonies. o Paine later involved in the French Revolution, donates proceeds to the cause. o Dies in 1809 in New York, poor and relatively unknown. Declaration of Independence: Purpose: Adopted on July 4, 1776, announced the thirteen American colonies' decision to break away from British rule. It laid out the philosophical principles justifying this separation. Authorship: Thomas Jefferson, with input from John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and others. Content: The document begins with an eloquent preamble asserting the equality and inalienable rights of all individuals, including "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." It then lists grievances against King George III, blaming him for the colonies' struggles. o Declaring the equality of men. o 5 men got the job to explain why America should be free. (Robert Livingston; Roger Sherman; Benjamin Franklin; John Adams) – Adams voted for Jefferson to write the document. Preamble On display in the National Archives, Washington, DC Second section: 27 grievances (“He has refused his Assent to Laws...”) Focus on King (excluding parliament) Misuse of monarchical authority (veto; dissolution of representative bodies; military power; nullifying charters; instituting royal governors; waging war) Trickery (locations of legislative meetings, of trials...) Economic exploitation No appreciation of representation as basis of legislation (taxes) Inciting civil strife and using Native Americans as ‘soldiers’ → Formal declaration of independence! 22 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg Signatures Preamble:  Asserts individual rights, including equality and unalienable rights.  Claims the right to form a new government if existing one violates rights.  Addresses the counterclaim of not changing governments lightly. Grievances:  Lists unfair actions of the British king and Parliament.  Expresses anger for violating colonial rights as English citizens.  Accuses the king of unfit rule, sending an army to enforce unjust laws. Formal Declaration:  Affirms 13 colonies as free and independent states.  Breaks all ties with the British government and people.  Grants the power to make agreements, wage war, and govern independently. Signatures:  56 signatures on the Declaration.  Signed on August 2, 1776, by 50 men from 13 states.  John Hancock signs first, risking lives for independence. Constitution:  Purpose: The U.S. Constitution, drafted in 1787 and ratified in 1788, established the structure and functions of the federal government, creating a more centralized and effective system than the earlier Articles of Confederation.  Authors: a group of delegates at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, including James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and Gouverneur Morris.  Content: It consists of a preamble and seven articles. The preamble outlines the goals of the government, emphasizing the pursuit of a more perfect union, establishing justice, ensuring domestic tranquility, providing for the common defense, promoting the general welfare, and securing the blessings of liberty. The articles detail the powers and responsibilities of the three branches of government.  Amendments: The Constitution has been amended 27 times, including the Bill of Rights (the first ten amendments), which guarantees individual freedoms. GEORGE WAHINGTON 1. Washington, aged 43 and wealthy, lacked extensive military command experience. 2. Selected as Commander-in-Chief by the Second Continental Congress for his Virginian identity and potential to boost Southern enthusiasm. 3. Financed the army with his own money, expressing doubts about his capability. 4. Despite self-doubt, he led without pay, displaying leadership, bravery, and luck. 5. Short-tempered and somewhat unpleasant, lacking humor, but an effective and courageous leader. 23 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg PATRIOTS VS. LOYALISTS Patriots: Advocate total independence from Britain. Differences between Patriots and Loyalists (both referring to Colonists!) Patriots → total independence from Britain Loyalists → loyalty to the King, support the British army Loyalists: o Show loyalty to the King and support the British army. Indifferent Colonists: o A third group remained indifferent to the conflict. Allies of Loyalists: o Many allies of the loyalists were African American slaves and Native Americans. Royal Announcement: o Royal governor of Virginia, Earl of Dunmore, announced freedom for slaves supporting the British in suppressing the American rebellion. Enslaved Individuals' Response: o Almost 20% of enslaved people sought British liberty by joining His Majesty's Troops. Congress Response: o Congress eventually allowed freed slaves to join the Continental Army led by George Washington. 24 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE / REVOLUTIONARY WAR IN NUTSHELL (1775- 1783) April 19, 1775: Battles of Lexington and Concord Continental Army led by General George Washington from 1775 onwards June 17, 1775: Battles of Bunker / Breed’s Hill Victories at Trenton (Christmas Eve of 1776) and Princeton. Washington crossing the Delaware River Dec 31, 1775: Defeat in Battle of Quebec 1777: Winning the Battle at Saratoga (turning point, because France acknowledged American independence and supported the United States army; French army under Rochambeau) October 19, 1781: British troops under Lord Cornwallis surrender at Yorktown. September 3, 1783: Treaty of Paris (B. Franklin in Paris one of the negotiators). Britain recognized independence and sovereignty of the US. o England would have no slaves, America would have no king (cf. Lepore, These Truths 108).. Start of War: o Began with the battles of Lexington and Concord between British troops and American patriots. Formation of Continental Army: o In 1775, the Continental Army, led by George Washington, was established by the 2nd Continental Congress. Battle of Bunker Hill: o Fought on Breed’s Hill, weakened British troops and motivated the Americans. Victories at Trenton and Princeton: o Washington's strategic moves resulted in victories, capturing Hessian soldiers and boosting morale. War in Canada: o Unsuccessful, suffered defeat at the Battle of Quebec. Turning Point - Battle of Saratoga: o Considered a turning point as the French allied with the United States. Allied Forces: o French leader Rochambeau and some Hessian troops joined as allies. Emancipation of Slaves: o Continental Army decided to free all slaves who fought for independence. Decisive Battle - Yorktown (1781): o British, led by General Cornwall, faced a significant defeat, marking a turning point. Peace Treaty (1783): o Signed, officially ending the fighting. British Strategy: o Britain, gracious in defeat, wanted to drive a wedge between America and France. Reason for British Withdrawal: o GB chose to keep other colonies (e.g., West Indies) facing slave uprisings and gave up America. Final Defeat in the West Indies (1782): o Battle of the Saints saw the British defeating the French invasion of Jamaica. Independence Achieved (1783): o America won its independence. o The Treaty of Paris (1783) ended the Revolution. o Britain recognizes America’s sovereignty. = British government officially acknowledges and accepts the independence and self-governance of the United States 25 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: 1777 → 1781-1789 1. Drafted 1777, ratified 1781 2. 1st “constitution” of the new 13 states 3. John Dickinson using “The United States of America” for the 1st time when drafting the AC. 4. The Articles set up a “government” that consisted of a one-house body of delegates, with each state having a single vote, who, acting collectively, could make decisions on certain issues that affected all the states. 5. 2/3 requirement: 9 of 13 states needed to make a decision. 6. Amendments to Articles: 100% vote → basically no amendments possible 7. NO power to tax or establish federal judicial system 8. „a firm league of friendship“, „a rope of sand“ 9. Challenge of Self-Government (1777): a Articles of Confederation adopted as a prototype constitution (not yet a constitution). b Congress achieved successes like the Treaty of Paris for independence and the Northwest Ordinance for westward expansion. 10. Northwest Ordinance (1787): a Provided foundation for westward movement and new settlements. b Funded public education and land sales. c Prohibited slavery and pledged to honor Indian treaties. 11. Articles of Confederation (1777-1781): a Drafted in 1777, finalized in 1781. o Modeled as a league of friendship among sovereign states. o "The United States of America" used by John Dickinson. o More like a peace treaty, lacked a strong form of government. 12. Features of Articles of Confederation: a Unicameral Congress with no executive or judicial branches. o Congress had one chamber, elected annually, with one vote per state. o No power to tax, regulate trade, or raise an army on a national level. b Intentionally weak government to preserve state sovereignty. 13. Issues and Weaknesses (1780s): a Depression and uprising by Massachusetts farmers led by Daniel Shays. b Lack of control, fear of civil war. c Flaws in the Articles recognized, leading to the call for a convention. 14. Constitutional Convention (1787): a Called to address flaws in the Articles. o Resulted in the drafting of the United States Constitution. b Recognized need for a stronger central government. 15. Transition to U.S. Constitution (1789): a Articles of Confederation remained in effect until March 4, 1789. o U.S. Constitution went into effect on the same date. o Shift from a weak confederation to a more robust federal government. 26 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION AND PERPETUAL UNION John Dickinson using “The United States of America” for the 1st time when drafting the AC. a league of friendship “for their Common Defence, the Security of their Liberties and their mutual & general Wellfare” First adopted in 1777, ratified in 1781 Unicameral congress, one vote per state (→ census becomes necessary!) Shays’s Rebellion 1786 creates fear of civil war. → wish to restore order! Drafting and Adoption (1777-1781): o Drafted in 1777 during the Revolutionary War. o Fully ratified by the states on March 1, 1781. Model of a League of Friendship: o Modeled as a league among sovereign states. o Emphasis on preserving state sovereignty. Structure and Features: o Unicameral Congress: No executive or judicial branches. o One chamber with equal representation (one vote per state). o No power to tax, regulate trade, or raise a national army. Weaknesses and Issues (1780s): o Economic depression and Shays' Rebellion exposed flaws. o Lack of central control led to fears of civil unrest. Transition to U.S. Constitution (1789): o Remained in effect until March 4, 1789. o Replaced by the United States Constitution. o Transition marked a shift to a stronger federal government. LAND ORDINANCE (1785) & NORTHWEST ORDINANCE (1787) Land Ordinance of 1785: Land won from Britain that wasn’t claimed by any of the states will be divided and sold. Townships. Part of revenue → public schools structured the way in which land was owned by the federal government → territory won from Britain could be divided and sold, part of the money would go into the establishments of public schools. Northwest Ordinance of 1787: Equal Admission for New States: o New states treated equally to the original 13 states. o Applied to territories beyond the Appalachian Mountains. Slavery Prohibition in Territories: o Ban on slavery in new territories. Ohio River established as a divide between slave and free states. 27 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg STRUCTURE AND CONTENTS OF THE CONSTITUTION PREAMBLE: We the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, ensure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLES I through VII 27 AMENDMENTS (1 through 10 = BILL OF RIGHTS) Article I: establishes the first of the three branches of the government, the Legislative Branch, structures Congress as a bicameral body with a Senate and House of Representatives, establishes election, composition, and tasks of both houses. Article II: Executive Branch: the President of the US. Rights, duties, election procedures, impeachment... System of Checks and Balances The Cabinet. Established in Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution, the Cabinet's role is to advise the President on any subject he may require relating to the duties of each member's respective office. Article III: Judiciary Branch. Supreme Court, lower courts. SCOTUS- supreme Court of the United States. Checks and Balances System: Prevents one branch from gaining excessive power. Divides power among legislative, executive, and judicial branches. Framework of the U.S. Constitution: Designed to limit and control each branch's powers. Ensures a balanced distribution of authority. Current Supreme Court Justices: Sonia Sotomayor Clarence Thomas John G. Roberts, Jr. Samuel A. Alito, Jr. Elena Kagan The first article establishes the legislative branch, i.e., congress, as a bicameral body. The House of Representatives has 435 members, the Senate 100. The states can send several representatives based on the number of people that live there. Article IV: Relations among individual states, states’ responsibilities Article V: Regulates how amendments to the Constitution can be made. Article VI: Constitution is the “supreme Law of the Land”(supremacy clause) Article VII: Ratification requires consent of nine state conventions. 28  H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg THE BILL OF RIGHTS AND OTHER AMENDMENTS Bill of Rights (I through X) → individual rights: personal freedom fair trial protection against overpowering federal government ratified in 1791. → 10 first amendments are called BoR. Freedoms of religion, speech, assembly, press…; bear arms; fair trial; fair punishment etc. In total: 27 Amendments between 1791 and 1992. 13th amendment (1865): slavery illegal. 15th amendment (1870): former slaves can vote. 19th amendment (1920): women can vote Ratification takes very long (ca. 7 years) – very difficult to pass. Amendments have always shaped US’ history and society! “Living constitution” = recognizes the Constitution's ability to remain relevant and effective through reinterpretation and adaptation to the dynamic circumstances of modern society. Federalist Papers: interpretation of the Constitution THE GREAT COMPROMISE 1787 Federalism is the division of power between the federal government and the states. The great compromised is between the large and the small states over representation in the new congress. Virginia plan (large state) & and the new jersey plan (small state) 2 house congress – BI CAMERAL LEGISLATURE New jersey sees themselves as a small nation – they wanted equality. Connecticut compromised – based on population. 3/5’s compromise: absence of slavery NOT THE LEGALITY OF SLAVERY! The issue is about money & representation. The more people you have the more power you get. North said: Slaves DO NOT COUNT as citizens // South said: THEY DO COUNT! Paper of Federalism: argue for his new constitution. Bill of rights gave the people a shield. Secures the anti-fed’s worries. 1789 - March 4, 1789: The First Congress convenes in NY’s city hall, renamed Federal Hall. - April 30, 1789: George Washington is inaugurated after the first presidential election as the 1 st POTUS. (president of the US) - Delivers oath and speech on the balcony on April 30, 1789. 29 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg THE NEW CAPITAL CITY 1st capital (1788-1790): NY 2nd capital (1790 – 1800): Philadelphia Madison in Federalist Papers: Congress should have power over the new capital, not a state. 1790, Residence Act: Philadelphia for 10 years, but look for a new capital to “establish the capital on a 10 mile stretch of riverland along the Potomac River in what was then Virginia and Maryland, and to found, as mandated in the Constitution, a federal district. It was to be called Washington.” Since 11 June 1800 Session 4 1798 -1850: THE PROMISE AND PERILS OF NATIONHOOD Large Louisiana territory still belonged to Spain. (Becomes part of the United States in 1803.) 30 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg HISTORICAL ASPECTS From the Early Republic to Seneca Falls: Consolidation versus Reform Consolidating the Republic Defining the Scope and Mission of the United States Expansion as Manifest Destiny Internal conflicts and reform movements (women; Native Americans; class issues) THE DEBATE BETWEEN THOMAS JEFFERSON AND ALEXANDER HAMILTON George Washington's 1796 warning about political factions leading to despotism. Advisors Jefferson and Hamilton contributed to the formation of factions and the dualparty system. Jefferson and Hamilton, founding fathers, had different visions for the nation's path. Appointed as Secretary of State and Secretary of Treasury, they harbored opposing views. Jefferson favored agrarian traditions, while Hamilton promoted manufacturers and commerce. Despite differences, Washington made them his closest advisors. Hamilton's economic plan included a national bank, consolidating state debts, and supporting tariffs. Jefferson and Hamilton's contrasting views influenced the early political landscape of the United States. By the time Jefferson and John Adams vied for the presidency in 1796, political factions had formed under the labels “Republicans” and “Federalists”. By 1804, the advent of political parties necessitated a constitutional amendment that changed the electoral process. 31 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg TWO PARTIES EMERGE. Democratic- Republican Party initially a unitary party with Jefferson as a member Jefferson favored States' rights, separation of church and state, and founded the University of Virginia Opponents of the constitution were called anti-federalists Anti-federalists accepted the need for a national government but debated its supremacy over states Many constitutional convention members became anti-federalists, advocating for the Bill of Rights Sam Adams and others believed the constitution endangered state independence Constitution supporters were called federalists, emphasizing the creation of a federal system Federalists aimed to assure states retained significant powers within the divided government Many members of the constitutional convention became anti-federalists because they believed the constitution should have the Bill of Rights. Sam Adams agreed – He thought the constitution endangered the independence of the states. Federalists: This name emphasized that the constitution would create a federal system. This means the power would be divided between central and regional governments. Federalists hoped that the name would remind those who feared a central government that the states would retain many of their powers. 32  H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg THOMAS JEFFERSON (ANTI-FEDERALIST) Jefferson was elected Vice-President in 1796 but the administration was headed by the federalists’ president John Adams. Jefferson then became president in 1800 which marked a transfer of power from one party to the other. It encouraged signs for future governmental stability. The Louisiana Purchase of 1803 - Jefferson believed in Agrarianism and thought widespread land ownership was crucial for the Republic's survival. - Concerned about French control over the lower Mississippi, he worried about potential alliances with the British. - Napoleon's need for funds and fear of an American-British alliance led to the U.S. purchasing Louisiana in 1803. - The U.S. acquired Louisiana for about 12-15 million dollars, doubling its size and gaining control of the entire Mississippi River. → Purchase 30 April 1803 - To explore the newly acquired region, Jefferson commissioned the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1803. THE BORDER BETWEEN CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES. - Treaty of 1818 (U.S. and British North America): o Boundary along 49th parallel from Minnesota to the Rockies. o Not extended to the Pacific until Treaty of Oregon in 1846. o Longest undefended border globally (almost 6000 miles). - Joint Control and Struggles: o Originally provided for joint control. o Quarrels and struggles arose, especially during the Mexican-American War. - Treaty of Oregon (1846): o Ended joint occupation. o Established the 49th parallel to the Pacific Coast. o Straight border, crossing Indigenous lands, causing challenges. - Texas Independence (1836-1845): o Anglo-American settlers in Texas declared independence from Spanish Mexico. o Battle of the Alamo (1836) led to Texan independence. Battle of San Jacinto secured independence, and Texas voted for statehood in 1845. Louisiana Purchase 1803 49th Parallel 1818 – est. Canadian border Spanish cession of Florida 1819 Texas independence 1836 Texas Annexation 1845: Texans voted for statehood Treaty of Oregon 1846: WA, OR, ID Mexican Cession 1848: AZ, CA, NV, UT o Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (Feb 02, 1848 ends war between Mex and US) Gadsden Purchase 1853: (parts of CA) 33 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg LEWIS AND CLARK AND THE WOMAN ON THE COIN “Corps of Discovery” started in St. Louis in 1804 and headed west up the Missouri River. Accompanied by Sacagawea, a Shoshone woman. 1. Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804-1806): o Leaders: ▪ Jefferson appointed Meriwether Lewis (29 years old) as the leader. ▪ William Clark (Lewis' former army colleague) served as co-captain. o Mission: ▪ Find a route to the Pacific, open the area to American traders, gather scientific information. o ▪ Team: ▪ 33 soldiers, 10 civilians, and Lewis' dog Seaman. ▪ Toussaint Charbonneau, a French fur-trapper, served as translator. ▪ Sacagawea, a Shoshone woman married to Charbonneau, accompanied the expedition. o ▪ Journey: ▪ Traveled up the Missouri River, through Dakotas, Montana, Idaho, and Oregon. ▪ Reached the Pacific near the mouth of the Columbia River in late 1805. ▪ Wintered there and returned to St. Louis in 1806. ▪ Covered nearly 7000 miles in 3 years. o Success and Impact: ▪ Cost $2500, minimal trouble with Native Americans thanks to Sacagawea. ▪ Vast knowledge gained on plants, animals, suitable farming lands. ▪ Stories of the new land thrilled the nation, inspiring Americanization. 2. Leaders' Background: o Meriwether Lewis (born in Virginia in 1774) chosen by Jefferson to lead. o William Clark (born in Virginia in 1770, moved to Kentucky) accompanied Lewis, met in the army. 3. Sacagawea's Role: o French-Canadian interpreter Charbonneau and pregnant wife Sacagawea joined the expedition. o Kidnapped at age 12, sold to Charbonneau. o Hoped Sacagawea would help communicate with the Shoshone. o Her son, Jean-Baptiste, born on the trip; she played a crucial role in the expedition. THE MANIFEST DESTINY While Mexico and the U.S. were still fighting over their border, expansionist proclaimed America’s Manifest Destiny. This means that they are actually supposed to go explore and go West. 34 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg Gast, John. American Progress, 1872. Painting's Visual Representation: o Depiction of America's westward expansion. o Scene not an actual event but symbolizes historical questions and cultural ideas. Manifest Destiny Representation: o Woman in the center symbolizes progress or Manifest Destiny. ▪ White dress and central position make her the point of focus. ▪ Flying across the country with a star on her head (Columbia or allegorical figure). ▪ Carrying a schoolbook (symbolizing education) and a telegraph line (symbolizing progress). o Native Americans depicted simplistically, fleeing or being driven away, symbolizing their struggle to adapt. o Settlers with wagons, railway, ships, and farmers claiming lands represent westward expansion. Symbolism in Lighting: o Enlightenment theme: Bringing light/civilization into the New World through knowledge and culture. o Undiscovered continent depicted as still dark. Frontier and Settlement: ▪ Frontier depicted as the area separating wild nature from civilized lands. o Sequential waves of settlers shown in the background. o Painting mainly depicts men, rooted in American thought. Historical Context: o Painted two decades before Frederick Jackson Turner's essay on the significance of the frontier. o Turner's essay discusses the closing of the frontier as expansion reaches the Pacific. o Settlers overcoming wilderness and creating new identities, seen as a postcolonial text. Telegraph and Samuel B. Morse: o Telegraph line held by the central figure represents Samuel B. Morse's invention. o Morse invented the telegraph, a communication device using electricity. o First message transmitted in 1844, leading to the formation of the Western Union Company. o By 1866, a transatlantic telegraph cable connected America and Europe. Telegraph considered the first true mass communication medium THE WAR OF 1812 1. Impressment: British impressment of American sailors, which involved forcing them into British naval service, was a major point of contention. The British practice interfered with American shipping and angered the U.S. 2. Trade Restrictions: British restrictions on American trade with France, including the Orders in Council, hurt American commerce. The British Navy's blockade of European ports affected American shipping and trade. 3. Native American Relations: British support for Native American resistance against American expansionism on the frontier heightened tensions. The British were seen as supporting Native American attacks on American settlers. 4. National Honor: The United States felt a need to defend its national honor and sovereignty against perceived British violations. The war was fueled by a sense of national pride and a desire to assert independence. The combination of these factors led to the declaration of war by the United States against Britain in 1812. The conflict lasted until 1815, with both sides eventually agreeing to the Treaty of Ghent, which restored pre-war borders and essentially ended the war in a return to the status quo. 35 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg o THE INDIAN REMOVAL ACT - Ca. 1830: 125.000 Native Americans - “Civilize” them – Boarding schools - “Five Civilized Tribes”: Choctaw, Chickasaw, Seminole, Creek, Cherokee - Black Hawk War 1832 - Worcester v. Georgia 1832: native nations are sovereign nations. - Andrew Jackson – brutality against Native Americans - “Indian Removal Act –> East of Mississippi (Oklahoma) - Trail of Tears: ca 5000 miles Native American Population in the 1830s: ▪ Approximately 125,000 Native Americans inhabited the Southeastern U.S. (Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama, North Carolina, etc.). ▪ They lived on lands cultivated by their ancestors for generations. Forced Relocation - Trail of Tears: President Andrew Jackson, also known as "Long Knife," implemented the Indian Removal policy. o White settlers' desire for Native lands, particularly for cotton cultivation, led to the forced removal of Native Americans. o The federal government compelled them to walk hundreds of miles to designated Indian territory across the Mississippi River, known as the Trail of Tears => deadly, under president Anrew Jackson => long life Civilizing Efforts and the "Five Civilized Tribes": o Some officials, including President George Washington, believed in the "civilization" of Native Americans. o The campaign aimed to assimilate Native Americans into European customs, including Christianity, English language, and economic practices. o Tribes such as the Cherokees, Choctaw, Seminole, Creek and Chickasaw embraced these customs and became known as the "five civilized tribes." Similarities to Canadian Boarding Schools: o In Canadian history, boarding schools served a similar purpose by imposing European practices on Indigenous children. Native American Resistance and Land Loss: o Resistance in the Northern states (e.g., Black Hawk War of 1832) also faced land loss due to valuable territories sought by white settlers. o State governments passed laws limiting Native American sovereignty and rights. Worcester vs. Georgia (1832): o Despite legal victories asserting Native sovereignty, maltreatment continued. o President Andrew Jackson advocated for Indian Removal, resulting in the transfer of Native lands to white farmers. Indian Removal Act (1830) and Trail of Tears: o The Act allowed the federal government to exchange native-held land East of the Mississippi for land in the Indian Colonization Zone (present-day Oklahoma). o Choctaw and Creek nations faced forced removal in the winter of 1831, resulting in the tragic "trail of tears and death." 36 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg o Cherokee Divide and Treaty of New Echota (1835): o The Cherokee people faced internal divisions on how to handle the government's determination to gain their lands. o The Treaty of New Echota, negotiated by a few self-appointed representatives, traded all Cherokee lands East of the Mississippi for compensation. o Despite Cherokee protests, Congress approved the treaty. Trail of Tears and Aftermath: o By 1838, only around 2,000 Cherokees had left their Georgia homeland for Indian territory. o The journey covered more than 1,200 miles, resulting in widespread sickness and over 5,000 Cherokee deaths. o Tens of thousands of Native Americans had been driven off their lands by the 1840s. Broken Promises and Continued Loss: o The federal government promised that the new land would remain unmolested forever, but as the frontier pushed westward, Indian country shrank. o In 1907, Oklahoma became a state, marking the end of Indian territory. Legacy of the Trail of Tears: The Trail of Tears covers over 5,000 miles and nine states: Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Kentucky, Missouri, North Carolina, Oklahoma, and Tennessee. o Today, it is managed by the National Park Service and accessible by foot, horse, bicycle, or car. THE CHURCH OF JESUS CHRIST OF LATTER-DAY SAINTS 1. Founded by Joseph Smith 2. Book of Mormon (angel Moroni) 3. Commerce, Illinois renamed Nauvoo 4. Becomes striving town, 15.000 people 5. Smith killed in 1844 6. Brigham Young leads Church to Utah in 1846 7. Self-identification as Christians 8. Ca. 7 millions in US During the frontier movement and waves of European immigration in the 19th century, the United States saw the emergence of various religious revivals, utopian ventures, and reform movements. Among the new religious groups were the Unitarians, Universalists, and a distinctive movement known as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, commonly known as Mormons. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons): 9. Founded by Joseph Smith, a New Englander in Western New York, who claimed to have been visited by an angel named Moroni. In 1830, Smith asserted a divine calling to restore the Christian Church to its original form and published the Book of Mormon, claiming it was a translation of inscriptions on golden plates received from Moroni. Faced harassment in Ohio, Missouri, and other places, prompting the Mormons to establish the city of Nauvoo in Illinois as a self-contained community. 10. Nauvoo thrived with approximately 15,000 inhabitants, but persecution persisted, leading to the murder of Joseph Smith in 1844. Brigham Young, a capable General under Smith, assumed leadership in 1846 and led the Mormons to settle in the Salt Lake Basin, Utah, considered inhospitable by many. 11. Despite challenges, the Mormons prospered, with around 5,000 members, including converts from Europe, by 1848. Currently, there are approximately 7 million Mormons in the U.S., many of whom self- identify as Christians. Brigham Young University in Salt Lake City stands as a renowned educational institution associated with the Mormon faith. 37 H.B. WS 23 VO Kriebernegg o THE SENECA FALLS CONVENTION - 1848 The 1848 Seneca Falls Convention is considered the “start” of the women’s movement. Women were just existing. They weren’t allowed to sign contracts and so on. Women had very few opportunities to be independent. Modeled on the declaration of independence. Organized by women's suffrage pioneers, including Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. GOLD RUSH - 1849 John Sutter discovered gold on his land in California in 1849 changed the landscape and the lives of people w