Alternative to Experimentation_ Non-experimental Designs PDF
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This document provides an overview of non-experimental research designs, focusing on techniques for studying behavior without manipulation of variables. It details phenomenology and qualitative research. The document aims to familiarize readers with the basics of qualitative research.
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SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE General Luna St., Guitnang Bayan 1, San Mateo, Rizal Tel. No. (02) 997-9070 www.smmc.edu.ph Chapter 3: Alternative to Experimentation: Non-ex...
SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE General Luna St., Guitnang Bayan 1, San Mateo, Rizal Tel. No. (02) 997-9070 www.smmc.edu.ph Chapter 3: Alternative to Experimentation: Non-experimental Design NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN Non-experimental research design is a type of research where the researcher does not manipulate variables or assign participants to different conditions. Instead, it focuses on observing and analyzing relationships, behaviors, or phenomena as they naturally occur. This design is commonly used in social sciences, psychology, and education when experimental manipulation is not feasible or ethical. Nonexperimental designs are valuable when real-world settings, ethical concerns, or complex variables make experimentation impractical. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES ❖ Learn about techniques for studying behavior that do not manipulate ❖ antecedent conditions ❖ Understand the concept of phenomenology and how it is employed in ❖ empirical phenomenology ❖ Learn how to conduct new research using data already collected by ❖ other researchers ❖ Learn about the techniques employed in observational research ❖ Familiarize yourself with the basics of qualitative research INPUT INFORMATION TOPICS: ❖ Chapter objectives ❖ Field Studies ❖ Describing Research Activities - Naturalistic Observation Studies ❖ Phenomenology - Participant - Observer Studies ❖ Case Studies ❖ Archival Study ❖ Qualitative Research SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE General Luna St., Guitnang Bayan 1, San Mateo, Rizal Tel. No. (02) 997-9070 www.smmc.edu.ph DESCRIBING RESEARCH ACTIVITIES All approaches to research can be described along two major dimensions: The degree of manipulation of antecedent conditions This refers to how much control the researcher has over the conditions or factors that are presumed to influence the outcome of the study. If the researcher manipulates these conditions (e.g., in an experiment where variables are controlled and altered), the study would be highly experimental in nature. The degree of imposition of units This dimension concerns how strictly the researcher defines and organizes the units of analysis in the study, such as individuals, groups, or even larger societal units. A high degree of imposition might involve strict categorization or operationalization of variables, where clear distinctions are made between units, while a low degree might involve more flexibility or natural variation in how units are understood or grouped. The degree of manipulation of antecedents theoretically varies from low to high, from letting things happen as they will to setting up carefully controlled conditions. For example, a study of children's nutrition could involve simply tracking behavior along with subjects' normal diets (low manipulation of antecedents), or at the other extreme, we could place subjects on fixed diets where all meals are provided (high manipulation of antecedents). Low Manipulation of Antecedents: If the researcher tracks children's nutrition by simply observing their normal behavior and eating habits, this would be a low manipulation of antecedents. High Manipulation of Antecedents: On the other hand, if the researcher decides to control the diet by placing the children on fixed diets where all meals are provided, this would be a high manipulation of antecedents. Selecting a high degree of manipulation has its pros and cons: We could then vary meals in predetermined ways and evaluate subsequent changes in behavior, but we would be imposing artificial conditions that might have little meaning in real life. Experiments are typically high in degree of manipulation; non-experiments are usually low. SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE General Luna St., Guitnang Bayan 1, San Mateo, Rizal Tel. No. (02) 997-9070 www.smmc.edu.ph PHENOMENOLOGY Definition and Purpose Phenomenology is a philosophical and research approach that studies human experiences and consciousness from a first-person perspective. It focuses on how people perceive, interpret, and give meaning to their experiences in the world. 2 main Types/Branches of Phenomenology 1. Descriptive Phenomenology (Husserl) Focus: Describes experiences as they appear, without interpretation. Method: Uses bracketing (epoché) to set aside biases and focus purely on consciousness. Goal: Identify the essential structures of experiences. 2. Interpretive (Hermeneutic) Phenomenology (Heidegger) Focus: Interprets the meaning of experiences rather than just describing them. Method: Acknowledges that interpretation is influenced by personal background and context. Goal: Understand how people make sense of their lived experiences. Importance of phenomenology in Research 1. To Capture Lived Experiences It helps researchers gain firsthand insights into how individuals experience events, emotions, or social interactions. 2. To Understand Subjective Perspectives It values personal meanings and interpretations, which are often overlooked in quantitative research. 3. To Explore Complex Human Phenomena SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE General Luna St., Guitnang Bayan 1, San Mateo, Rizal Tel. No. (02) 997-9070 www.smmc.edu.ph It is useful for studying topics like emotions, trauma, identity, and consciousness, which can't be fully explained through statistics alone. 4. To Improve Practices in Various Fields Insights from phenomenology can enhance education, healthcare, psychology, and social work by making policies and interventions more human-centered. 5. To Challenge Assumptions and Biases By focusing on individual experiences, it helps reveal new perspectives and questions traditional beliefs. Key Philosophers & Their Contributions Edmund Husserl Founder of descriptive phenomenology, focusing on studying experiences without bias. Martin Heidegger Developed interpretive (hermeneutic) phenomenology, emphasizing the role of context and meaning in experiences. Maurice Merleau-Ponty Highlighted the role of the body and perception in experience. Jean-Paul Sartre Connected phenomenology with existentialism, focusing on personal freedom and self-awareness. Antecedents are not manipulated, and data may consist of any immediate experience; no constraints are imposed. Phenomenology cannot be used to understand the causes of behavior. Like other non-experimental designs, phenomenology describes, but cannot explain, behavior. Comparison of behaviors under different treatment conditions is not required. Boring (1950) cites Purkinje as a good example of the phenomenologically based researcher. Johannes Purkinje (1787-1869) was interested in the physiology of vision, and he noticed that colors seemed to change as twilight depended; reds appeared black, but blues retained their hue. This observation (now called the Purkinje effect). William James (1842-1910) arguably the world's most famous early psychologist also used the phenomenological approach. In his 1, 200-page work Principles of Psychology (republished in 1950; originally published in 1890), James dealt with basic psychological SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE General Luna St., Guitnang Bayan 1, San Mateo, Rizal Tel. No. (02) 997-9070 www.smmc.edu.ph issues, including habits, emotions, consciousness, and the stream of thoughts. James approached most ideas from the phenomenological perspective of his own experiences. Sample Research ❖ User Experience in Virtual Safety Training: Teräs et al. (2016) explored "The Lived User Experience of Virtual Environments" in a safety training setting, providing insights into how employees perceive and interact with virtual training tools. https://arxiv.org/abs/1606.01363 ❖ Parental Experiences with Autism Services: Donna Marie Barrow conducted a phenomenological study on "the lived experiences of parents of young children with autism receiving special education services," aiming to understand the challenges and perceptions of these parents. https://delvetool.com/blog/phenomenology ❖ Experiences of Individuals with Mental Illness in Korea: Kang and Kim (2014) performed "A phenomenological study of the lived experiences of Koreans with mental illness," delving into the personal experiences and societal challenges faced by this group. https://uta.pressbooks.pub/advancedresearchmethodsinsw/chapter/20-4-phenom enology/ SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE General Luna St., Guitnang Bayan 1, San Mateo, Rizal Tel. No. (02) 997-9070 www.smmc.edu.ph CASE STUDIES Definition and purpose It is a descriptive record of a single individual’s experiences, or behaviors, or both, kept by an outside observer. We may use a case study to make inferences about the impact of life events, the origin of disorders, or develop-mental processes. Case studies approach provided the first systematic data on the development of children’s motor, cognitive, and linguistic abilities. Case studies have 5 major purposes/ advantages They are a source of inferences, hypotheses, and theories. They are a source for developing therapy techniques. They allow the study of rare phenomena. They provide exceptions, or counter-instances, to accepted ideas, theories,or practices. They have persuasive and motivational value. Types of Case Studies ❖ Critical Instance case study Used in criminalistics, legal proceedings, and experimental science to identify causes or cause-effect relationships ❖ Explanatory case study Used in social sciences to explain why or how certain events occurred ❖ Cumulative case study Also known as a collective or multiple case study, this type of study involves collecting information from multiple sources and compiling it for a new study ❖ Exploratory case study Used to develop an initial understanding of a phenomenon or program ❖ Descriptive case study Used when there is an existing hypothesis, and the goal is to find connections between the subject being studied and a theory ❖ Instrumental case study Used to gain a broader understanding of an issue or to refine a theoretical construct SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE General Luna St., Guitnang Bayan 1, San Mateo, Rizal Tel. No. (02) 997-9070 www.smmc.edu.ph ❖ Illustrative case study Used to provide a detailed depiction of a situation or phenomenon to help understand complex concepts Case studies frequently rely on retrospective data. Retrospective data is data gathered in the present that are retrospective and founded on memories of the past. For several reasons, information gathered after the occurrence may not be reliable. People frequently have trouble recalling every detail of what transpired at a specific moment. Case studies that is known in the fields of Psychology Checkley’s (1941) case studies of psychopathy (The Mask of Sanity) and multiple personality disorder (The Three Faces of Eve) (1957) Breuer & Freud (1895) - Anna O. Freud and Little Hans. Although the case study is a valuable information source, there are a number of drawbacks to this strategy. First, we cannot be certain that the individuals we are assessing are typical of the broader population when we are working with just one or maybe a small number of respondents;Second, We cannot be certain that we are aware of every significant part of someone's life if we are unable to see them personally on a regular basis. Lastly, subjects or other people When supplying data for case studies, it's possible to overlook crucial information. either due to their perception that it is unimportant or because they find it embarrassing. SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE General Luna St., Guitnang Bayan 1, San Mateo, Rizal Tel. No. (02) 997-9070 www.smmc.edu.ph FIELD STUDIES Field studies are nonexperimental research methods conducted in real-life settings. Researchers gather data in natural environments to study behavior as it occurs in the real world. Characteristics of Field Studies: Variety of Data Sources: Researchers combine multiple data collection techniques to capture the full complexity of behavior. No Manipulation of Antecedent Conditions: In field studies, antecedent (prior) conditions are not manipulated, meaning researchers observe natural occurrences. Natural Context: Researchers take advantage of the richness and diversity of behaviors found outside controlled environments. Degree of Constraint on Responses: The level of control over responses varies across studies, which can range from low-low (minimal control over both variables) to low-high (some control over one aspect but not others). Examples of Field Studies: ❖ Ethological Studies: Observing animal behavior in natural habitats. ❖ Child Development Studies: Examining how children develop in real-life environments. ❖ Market Research: Studying consumer behavior in natural shopping environments. ❖ Organizational Studies: Analyzing organizational behavior in the workplace. Naturalistic Observation Studies A research method where researchers observe behaviors as they occur spontaneously in natural environments, without manipulation or interference. SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE General Luna St., Guitnang Bayan 1, San Mateo, Rizal Tel. No. (02) 997-9070 www.smmc.edu.ph Descriptive Method: Researchers do not alter the environment or conditions; they just observe. Low Constraints: Very few researcher-imposed rules, allowing subjects to behave freely and naturally. Real-World Data: Naturalistic observation often provides more valid, real-world data compared to controlled lab experiments. Dian Fossey's Study of Mountain Gorillas: Fossey spent years studying gorillas' social dynamics in the Virunga Volcanoes of Central Africa. Her work brought attention to the plight of mountain gorillas and led to conservation efforts. Fossey’s book Gorillas in the Mist and her sanctuary in Rwanda played a major role in saving these endangered animals. Inconspicuous Observation: Researchers often hide or blend in with the environment to avoid influencing behavior. Example: Researchers may use one-way mirrors or hide behind barriers. Unobtrusive Measures: Data can be collected by observing indirect signs of behavior (e.g., wear and tear on books, candy wrappers in a trash can). This minimizes the chance of participants altering their behavior due to the presence of an observer. Participant - Observer Studies A research method where the researcher actively becomes part of the group being studied. Often used when the group might not cooperate voluntarily in traditional studies.The researcher does not always inform group members about being observed. Example Studies: Ethnic Identity in an Urban High School Homelessness Self-Actualization in a Spiritual Community Supernatural Beliefs in Wicca Reentry of Long-Term Mental Health Patients Urban Crack Addicts Each of these topics would be challenging to study using traditional research methods. SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE General Luna St., Guitnang Bayan 1, San Mateo, Rizal Tel. No. (02) 997-9070 www.smmc.edu.ph ARCHIVAL STUDY Archival Study is a descriptive research method in which already existing records are reexamined for new purposes. For example, Vast amounts of data are collected by government and private agencies, hospitals, businesses, schools, institutes, and so on. Information about such things as crime and death rates, education levels, salaries, housing patterns, and disease rates are accessible to researchers.There are also archives housing data from scientific research surveys, some using very large national samples. In addition, some of these questionnaires also collect information on people's attitudes apart from the demographic details. This data can be used to analyze any trends in society or to know more about demographic subgroups. In an interesting use of archival data, Bowman (1992) studied some controversial issues about African American men, namely, documented discouragement over barriers to employment and problems with family roles from a positive perspective. His study looked at factors related to facilitative, adaptive coping mechanisms in a sample of 372 African American men who were responsible husbands and fathers. Types of Archival Study Public Records Organizational Records Media Archives Personal documents Digital Archives Challenges that may be faced while using archival study are: Data may be incomplete or biased. Records might be difficult to access due to privacy laws or institutional policies. SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE General Luna St., Guitnang Bayan 1, San Mateo, Rizal Tel. No. (02) 997-9070 www.smmc.edu.ph QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Qualitative research relies on words rather than numbers for the data being collected; it focuses on self-reports, personal narratives, and expression of ideas, memories, feelings, and thoughts. Some psychologists are even going so far as to argue that qualitative research, which some call the big-Q, is a candidate for a paradigm shift within psychology (O’Neill, 2002; Rennie et al., 2002). A paradigm is the set of attitudes, values, beliefs, methods, and procedures that are generally accepted within a particular discipline at a certain point in time (Kuhn, 1970). Qualitative research is used to study phenomena that are contextual, meaning they cannot be understood without the context in which they appear. These phenomena deserve to be studied within a rich background or unique environment. Many qualitative studies use methods of empirical phenomenology to gather data. Empirical phenomenology relies on the researcher’s own experiences or experiential data provided by others. There are many sources of potential bias in qualitative research, and the most important measure of the goodness of a qualitative study lies in reproducibility—others should be able to replicate it with similar results. SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE General Luna St., Guitnang Bayan 1, San Mateo, Rizal Tel. No. (02) 997-9070 www.smmc.edu.ph REFERENCES: Teräs, M., Teräs, H., & Reiners, T. (2016, June 4). The lived user experience of virtual environments: Initial steps of a phenomenological analysis in a safety training setting. arXiv.org. https://arxiv.org/abs/1606.01363 H, L. (2023, August 30). What is Phenomenological Research Design? — Delve. Delve. https://delvetool.com/blog/phenomenology Mavs Open Press. (n.d.). 19.4 Phenomenology. Pressbooks. https://uta.pressbooks.pub/advancedresearchmethodsinsw/chapter/20-4-phenomenolog y/