Research Questions and Sampling Techniques PDF

**1. What is the most common source of evidence in research, and what are two terms used to refer to it?**\ \* **Answer:** Individuals are the most common source of evidence, often called \"participants\" or \"subjects.\" **2. What term refers to the collective group of individuals from whom data a...

**1. What is the most common source of evidence in research, and what are two terms used to refer to it?**\ \* **Answer:** Individuals are the most common source of evidence, often called \"participants\" or \"subjects.\" **2. What term refers to the collective group of individuals from whom data are collected?**\ \* **Answer:** A \"sample.\" **3. In quantitative research, what are the two main types of sampling procedures?**\ \* **Answer:** Probability sampling and non-probability sampling. **4. What is a defining characteristic of probability sampling, and what is its goal?**\ \* **Answer:** A known probability of selection and aims to select a sample representative of a larger group for generalization of the results. **5. Define \"margin of error\" in sampling.**\ \* **Answer:** The extent to which repeated random samples will deviate from the population. **6. What happens to the margin of error when the sample size increases?**\ \* **Answer:** The margin of error decreases. **7. Name three types of random sampling techniques.**\ \* **Answer:** Simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified random sampling, and cluster sampling (any three is fine). **8. How does simple random sampling work?**\ \* **Answer:** Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. **9. What is \"non-response\" in sampling?**\ \* **Answer:** The problem of randomly selected participants not completing the research. **10. What is systematic sampling?**\ \* **Answer:** Selecting every *n*th member of a list or population. **11. What is the purpose of stratified random sampling?**\ \* **Answer:** To ensure that subgroups (strata) within a population are proportionally represented in the sample. **12. How does cluster sampling work, and what are typical examples?**\ \* **Answer:** Naturally occurring groups (e.g., schools, districts) are randomly selected first, then subjects are randomly selected from those groups. **13. What is a defining characteristic of non-probability sampling?**\ \* **Answer:** The probability of selecting a participant is unknown. **14. How are participants chosen in non-random sampling, give one characteristic?**\ \* **Answer**: Based on their characteristics or their availability to participate. **15. What is one major advantage of convenience sampling?**\ \* **Answer:** The ease with which participants can be recruited. **16. What is a major disadvantage of both convenience and snowball sampling?**\ \* **Answer:** The lack of representativeness of the general population. **17. In qualitative studies, why are participants selected purposefully?**\ \* **Answer:** To provide the best information to address the research question, these cases are studied in depth. **18. What is \"extreme case sampling\" in qualitative research?**\ \* **Answer:** Selecting cases that are unique or atypical outliers. **19. What are two types of hybrid approaches for mixed-method sampling?**\ \* **Answer:** Stratified purposeful sampling and purposeful random sampling, concurrent and multilevel. (Any two is fine) **20. What is one important criterion for evaluating a subjects section/sampling procedure?**\ \* **Answer:** The participants should be clearly described with specific and detailed information, and the population is defined clearly, sampling is clearly described, free from bias, etc. **1. What is the broad purpose of a literature review?**\ \* **Answer:** To relate previous research and theory to the problem under investigation. **2. How does a literature review help in placing a research problem in context?**\ \* **Answer:** By showing how a current or proposed study compares to previous investigations, allowing the research problem and methodology to be placed in an appropriate context. **3. Why might researchers be less likely to use the most effective methods without a good literature review?**\ \* **Answer:** Because they wouldn\'t be aware of what methods have already been shown to be effective in previous studies. **4. What are some specific purposes of reviewing the literature (name 3)?**\ \* **Answer:** Refining the research problem, establishing the conceptual or theoretical orientation, developing significance, identifying methodological limitations, identifying contradictory findings, developing research hypotheses, and learning about new information. (Any three is fine) **5. How does reviewing literature help refine a research problem?**\ \* **Answer:** By learning how others have defined the problem, finding ideas and examples, and clarifying concepts and variables, leading to a more specific and focused problem formulation. **6. How does a literature review help establish a study\'s conceptual or theoretical orientation?**\ \* **Answer:** By identifying if a new theory is proposed or tested, or if existing theory will be used. It also establishes a logical link between the research question and methodology within a pertinent conceptual framework. **7. How can the review help researchers identify new directions and avoid duplication?**\ \* **Answer:** By revealing what has already been studied, allowing researchers to explore gaps in the existing literature and avoid unnecessary repetition. **8. How can the literature review help identify methodological limitations of existing research?**\ \* **Answer:** By examining both successful and unsuccessful methods used in previous studies and suggesting a need to replicate research with specific improvements. **9. What is the significance of identifying contradictory findings in previous research?**\ \* **Answer:** This provides an opportunity to design research that can resolve the contradiction and therefore contribute significantly to knowledge. **10. When should existing theories be used to justify a research hypothesis?**\ \* **Answer:** When there are few or no closely related studies, or when educational studies aren\'t clearly related to the problem; and also the literature can provide evidence for the hypothesis **11. What is the first step in reviewing related literature?**\ \* **Answer:** Select a topic and key terms. **12. Name three places to find databases.** - **Answer:** ERIC, Google Scholar, AI tools for literature search. **13. What is the difference between a primary and secondary source?**\ \* **Answer:** A primary source is an original article or report where researchers communicate directly, while a secondary source reviews, summarizes, or discusses primary research. **14. What is a meta-analysis?**\ \* **Answer:** A review that quantitatively synthesizes previous studies using statistical methods to calculate an overall effect. **15. Why is it important to examine the methodology of meta-analyses?**\ \* **Answer:** Because there are different ways to identify and combine studies, which can affect the credibility of the results. **16. In what way is it beneficial to take notes electronically or on index cards?** - **Answer:** Because records can easily be organized in different ways after receiving the articles. **17. What are three things that should be included in notes about a primary source?**\ \* **Answer:** Summary of the study, analysis of the study and summary of how the study relates to the research problem. **18. What is one of the best sources for finding new articles to review?** - **Answer:** The reference section of a primary source. **19. What does it mean to say a literature review is \"thematic\"?**\ \* **Answer:** A review in which a topic is identified and discussed without a detailed analysis of individual studies. This approach is more common in qualitative reviews. **20. What are three criteria for evaluating the review of literature?**\ \* **Answer:** Adequate coverage of the topic, citation of actual findings, up-to-date information, analysis/summary of previous studies, organization by topic, summarizing minor studies & detail of major studies, relation to research problem, logical basis for the hypothesis, and the development of the significance of the research. 1. **What are the three primary classifications of educational measures?** 2. **Differentiate between cognitive and non-cognitive measures. Provide an example of each.** 3. **What is the distinction between commercially prepared and locally developed measures?** 4. **Describe the difference between self-report measures and observations.** 5. **What are the three main characteristics used to differentiate types of tests?** 6. **Explain the difference between norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests.** 7. **List and briefly describe three types of standardized tests.** 8. **What is the purpose of Likert scales in questionnaires? How are they structured?** 9. **Define semantic differential scales and provide an example of their use.** 10. **What are the advantages and disadvantages of using questionnaires?** 11. **Explain the difference between low-inference and high-inference observations.** 12. **Identify two challenges that can arise during high-inference observations.** 13. **What strategies can reduce observer bias in observational research?** 14. **What are the key characteristics of structured, semi-structured, and unstructured interview questions?** 15. **List three advantages and three disadvantages of using interviews as a data collection method.** 16. **Why is avoiding double-barreled questions important when constructing survey items?** 17. **What does validity mean in the context of evaluating research instruments? Provide an example.** 18. **What is response bias, and how can it be controlled in questionnaires?** 19. **Describe three resources where researchers can locate educational measures.** 20. **What is the halo effect, and how does it influence observational research?** 1. **Q**: What are the main limitations of using personal experience as a source of knowledge?\ **A**: Bias, subjective interpretations, inaccurate observations, and the influence of self-esteem on objectivity. 2. **Q**: How can reliance on tradition hinder the acquisition of new knowledge?\ **A**: It discourages questioning existing practices and makes adopting innovative ideas difficult. 3. **Q**: Why should we analyze the suggestions of authorities critically?\ **A**: Authorities can be wrong, may present opinions as facts, and can provide conflicting perspectives. 4. **Q**: What distinguishes research from other sources of knowledge?\ **A**: It is systematic, disciplined, objective, and involves data collection, interpretation, and reporting. 5. **Q**: What is the significance of objectivity in research?\ **A**: It ensures observations and conclusions are unbiased and based solely on evidence. 6. **Q**: Why is verification important in research?\ **A**: Verification through replication ensures the reliability and generalizability of findings. 7. **Q**: What does it mean for a research question to be "significant"?\ **A**: It addresses important issues with potential to benefit educational practices or knowledge. 8. **Q**: Why is linking research to theory essential?\ **A**: Theories provide a framework for understanding phenomena and generalizing findings. 9. **Q**: How can researchers ensure their conclusions are credible?\ **A**: By providing a coherent, evidence-based chain of reasoning, addressing limitations, and ensuring methodological rigor. 10. **Q**: What is the role of peer review in scientific inquiry?\ **A**: It ensures credibility, allows scrutiny, and validates findings through professional critique. 11. **Q**: What is the primary difference between quantitative and qualitative research?\ **A**: Quantitative research focuses on numerical data, while qualitative research provides narrative or textual insights. 12. **Q**: Why might mixed-method research be beneficial?\ **A**: It combines the strengths of quantitative and qualitative approaches for comprehensive insights. 13. **Q**: What is the main disadvantage of qualitative research?\ **A**: Small, non-random samples limit generalizability to larger populations. 14. **Q**: Why is sampling critical in quantitative research?\ **A**: It ensures data is representative and findings are generalizable. 15. **Q**: How does applied research differ from basic research?\ **A**: Applied research addresses practical problems, while basic research expands theoretical knowledge. 16. **Q**: What is the focus of action research?\ **A**: Improving practices and outcomes within a specific institution or context. 17. **Q**: What is a key characteristic of analytical research?\ **A**: It involves systematic analysis of documents, records, or artifacts to investigate events or ideas. 18. **Q**: What is informed consent, and why is it important?\ **A**: Participants must be informed about the study and agree voluntarily, ensuring ethical integrity. 19. **Q**: Why is it essential to protect participants\' anonymity and confidentiality?\ **A**: To maintain privacy and avoid harm or discomfort to participants. 20. **Q**: What is the purpose of institutional review boards (IRBs)?\ **A**: To review research proposals, ensuring ethical standards are upheld before data collection begins. 21. **1. Q: What are the two Greek words that form the basis of \"pedagogy\" and what do they mean?** A: \"Paidos\" meaning \"child\" and \"agein\" meaning \"to guide, to lead\" 22. **2. Q: What is the difference between \"educere\" and \"ducere\"?** A: \"Educere\" means \"to place another out of a certain state\" while \"ducere\" means \"to guide\" 23. **3. Q: What are the four main phases of the Hermeneutical Phenomenological Method?** A: 1) Previous Stage or Clarification of Budgets 4\) Writing about-Reflecting on the Experience Lived 24. **4. Q: What is the primary purpose of phenomenology in education?** A: To understand and interpret the fundamental structures of lived educational experiences and recognize their pedagogical value 25. **5. Q: What are the two types of silence described in phenomenological research?** A: 1) Literal/epistemological silence (linked to what cannot be said) 2\) Ontological silence (moments when we acquire meaningful experience) 26. **6. Q: What is the main purpose of the \"Previous Stage\" in phenomenological research?** A: To establish budgets, hypotheses, preconceptions, and recognize potential biases that could intervene in the research 27. **7. Q: What are the three main methods for collecting experiential material according to Van Manen?** A: 1) Description of personal experiences 2\) Conversational interview 3\) Close observation 28. **8. Q: What is the difference between in-depth interviews and conversational interviews in phenomenology?** A: In-depth interviews seek biographical information and interpretations, while conversational interviews seek to obtain the lived meaning of specific experiences 29. **9. Q: What is an \"epiphany\" in phenomenological text?** A: A sudden perception or intuitive understanding of the life meaning of something that is so significant it moves us in the central part of our being 30. **10. Q: How should anecdotes be written in phenomenological research?** A: They should be described as lived, avoiding causal explanations, generalizations, or abstract interpretations, focusing on specific events and experiences 31. **11. Q: What disciplines does pedagogy merge as a multidisciplinary science?** A: Philosophy, psychology, anthropology, sociology, and economics 32. **12. Q: What is the main difference between close observation and participant observation?** A: Close observation avoids formulating previous schemes of thought, while participant observation starts from or develops categories 33. **13. Q: What is the purpose of the \"selective or marking approach\" in phenomenological analysis?** A: To identify phrases that are especially fundamental or revealing of the experience being described 34. **14. Q: According to the text, what should researchers do with their theoretical knowledge during phenomenological research?** A: They should not relegate theories but prefer to disregard them to obtain freedom of thought 35. **15. Q: What is the primary goal of the phenomenological method according to Martinez?** A: To move from the particular to the universal, creating a complete phenomenological description 36. **16. Q: What are the two dimensions of meaning in phenomenological text?** A: 1) Semantic meanings (expositive) 2\) Expressive quality (non-cognitive) 37. **17. Q: How does phenomenology view the subject-object relationship?** A: It does not conceive subject and object as separate entities; the existence of world objects as something differentiated from human consciousness is put in parentheses 38. **18. Q: What sequence is followed in collecting experiential material?** A: 1) Conversational interview 2\) Writing of descriptions 3\) Formulation of questions 4\) Conversational interview 5\) Rewriting of descriptions 6\) Reformulation of descriptions in the final phenomenological text 39. **19. Q: What should be considered when integrating particular structures into a general structure?** 40. **20. Q: According to Van Manen, what is the main challenge in phenomenological reflection?** A: The search for meaning is the most difficult task of phenomenological reflection 41. **What are the two main branches of hermeneutics?**\ **Key**: (1) Interpretation, which addresses the practical issue of how to interpret texts; (2) Understanding, which explores the philosophical questions of what understanding means and how it occurs. 42. **What is the hermeneutic circle, and why is it significant?**\ **Key**: It is a conceptual model illustrating the iterative relationship between the whole and its parts, emphasizing that understanding emerges through this relational dynamic. 43. **Who is considered the father of modern hermeneutics?**\ **Key**: Friedrich Schleiermacher. 44. **How does Schleiermacher define the relationship between the whole and parts in interpretation?**\ **Key**: The whole can only be understood through its parts, and parts can only be understood through their relationship to the whole. 45. **How does Heidegger shift the focus of hermeneutics?**\ **Key**: He shifts from methodological concerns to existential ones, focusing on the circular relationship between pre-understanding and understanding. 46. **What does Gadamer mean by the "fusion of horizons"?**\ **Key**: It is the merging of the interpreter\'s perspective with the historical and cultural context of the text to achieve understanding. 47. **What is the distinction between meaning and significance in hermeneutics?**\ **Key**: Meaning refers to the inherent content of the text, while significance relates to its relevance and interpretation within the interpreter's context. 48. **What is the \"hermeneutics of suspicion,\" and who are its key proponents?**\ **Key**: A critical approach that challenges the trustworthiness of texts, focusing on hidden meanings. Key proponents include Ricoeur, Freud, Marx, and Nietzsche. 49. **How does Gadamer critique the Enlightenment's view of prejudice?**\ **Key**: He argues that the Enlightenment\'s rejection of prejudice overlooks its productive role in enabling interpretation and understanding. 50. **What is the role of pre-understanding in Heidegger's hermeneutics?**\ **Key**: Pre-understanding refers to the assumptions and prior knowledge that shape how one interprets and engages with a text. 51. **Why does Habermas critique Gadamer\'s hermeneutics?**\ **Key**: Habermas criticizes Gadamer for not addressing how power structures and ideologies distort understanding. 52. **How does Schleiermacher view the goal of hermeneutics?**\ **Key**: To reconstruct the original meaning of a text, even potentially understanding the author better than they understood themselves. 53. **What is the relevance of hermeneutics in organizational and management studies?**\ **Key**: Hermeneutics informs interpretive methodologies, including thematic analysis, critical hermeneutics, and the examination of organizational texts and practices. 54. **What does Ricoeur mean by \"sense beneath the sense\"?**\ **Key**: Ricoeur explores how symbols and texts carry deeper, hidden meanings beyond their surface interpretation. 55. **What methodological principle does the hermeneutic circle challenge?**\ **Key**: Linear, step-by-step approaches to understanding, instead advocating for iterative and relational thinking. 56. **How does Gadamer connect understanding with tradition?**\ **Key**: He views understanding as deeply rooted in shared cultural and historical traditions that shape both the text and the interpreter. 57. **What is the significance of non-sense in hermeneutics?**\ **Key**: Disruptions to sense force reflection and can reveal deeper layers of meaning, challenging preconceived notions. 58. **What are the differences between Schleiermacher's and Gadamer's approaches to authorial intention?**\ **Key**: Schleiermacher emphasizes reconstructing the author\'s intention, while Gadamer focuses on the dialogue between the text and interpreter, transcending intention. 59. **What is critical hermeneutics, and how does it differ from traditional hermeneutics?**\ **Key**: Critical hermeneutics examines the ideological and power dynamics in interpretation, focusing on emancipation rather than mere understanding. 60. **How does the hermeneutic tradition challenge strict distinctions between subjectivity and objectivity?**\ **Key**: By emphasizing the interconnectedness of context, interpreter, and text, hermeneutics blurs rigid lines between subjective interpretation and objective meaning.