Tests, Measurements, and Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences PDF

## Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences ### Meaning and Types of Variables - **Variable:** A variable is something that changes, or varies. - **Dependent variable:** The variable that is being measured. - **Independent variable:** The variable that is being manipulated....

## Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences ### Meaning and Types of Variables - **Variable:** A variable is something that changes, or varies. - **Dependent variable:** The variable that is being measured. - **Independent variable:** The variable that is being manipulated. - **Intervening variable:** A variable that comes between the independent and dependent variables. ### Importance of Measuring Dependent Variables - **Direct observation of the targeted behaviour:** The researcher directly observes and measures the behaviour of interest. - **Indirect measures of unseen internal processes:** The researcher measures an observable response that is believed to be correlated with the unseen process. ### Methods of Measuring Dependent Variables - **Direct observation:** Direct observation of the interested behaviour. - **Indirect measures:** Indirect measures of unseen internal processes. ### Important Considerations in Selecting a Research Problem - **Significance:** Is the problem important enough to warrant investigation? - **Solvability:** Can the problem be solved using research methods? - **Novelty:** Is the problem original, or has it already been investigated? - **Theoretical value:** Will the problem contribute to the development of a theory? - **Workability:** Is the problem feasible for the researcher to conduct? - **Data availability:** Are adequate data available to answer the research question? ### Ways in which a Research Problem is Manifested - **Noticeable gap in the results of investigations:** A gap in the existing knowledge about the research topic. - **Contradictory results of investigations:** Conflicting findings from previous studies. - **Isolated fact in the form of unexplained information:** A single fact that doesn't fit with the existing knowledge. ### Meaning and characteristics of a good hypothesis - **Hypothesis:** A testable proposition, or statement, about a potential relationship between two or more variables. - **Testable:** The hypothesis must be able to be tested. - **Relationship between variables:** The hypothesis must state a relationship between two or more variables. - **Measurable:** The variables in the hypothesis must be measurable. ### Types of Hypotheses - **Universal hypothesis:** A hypothesis that is believed to be true for all cases. - **Existential hypothesis:** A hypothesis that is believed to be true for at least one case. - **Causal hypothesis:** A hypothesis that postulates a causal relationship between variables. - **Descriptive hypothesis:** A hypothesis that describes a behaviour or phenomenon. ### Sources of Stating A Research Problem - **Observations and experiences:** The researcher observes the world and identifies problems that need to be investigated. - **Theories:** Theories can lead to hypotheses that can then be tested. - **Past Research:** The researcher examines past research and identifies gaps in knowledge or conflicting findings. - **Practical problems:** Problems that arise in everyday life can provide a starting point for research. ### Importance of Formulating a Research Problem - **Clear Direction:** Formulating a good research problem provides a clear direction for the research. - **Organization:** A good research problem helps organize the research process. - **Understanding:** It helps the researcher understand the problem to be solved. - **Input and Output:** A good research problem provides the input for the research, and the output of the research is the product of that input. ### Steps in Formulating a Research Problem - **Identifying broad field or area of interest:** The researcher must identify a general area of interest. - **Dissecting the broad area into subareas:** The areas of interest are then divided into smaller, more manageable subareas. - **Selecting a subarea:** The researcher selects the subarea that is most interesting and feasible to study. - **Formulating a hypothesis:** The researcher develops a testable proposition about the relationship between variables to be studied. ### Scientific Approach to the Study of Behaviour - **Assumptions of Science:** - **Nature is lawful:** Scientific inquiry assumes that the world operates according to laws. - **Behavior is deterministic:** Behaviours are caused by identifiable factors. - **Nature is understandable:** Scientific research assumes that the world can, in principle, be understood. - **Attitude of Scientists:** - **Open-mindedness:** Scientists are willing to consider evidence that contradicts their beliefs. - **Uncertainty:** Scientists recognize that knowledge is always incomplete. - **Fallibility:** Scientists are willing to acknowledge that they can be wrong. - **Caution:** Scientists are careful with their interpretations of data. - **Skepticism:** Scientists are skeptical of claims that are not supported by evidence. - **Ethics:** Scientists are concerned with the ethical implications of their research. ### The Problem and the Hypothesis - **Problem statement:** A question that is clear, specific, answerable, interconnected, and substantively relevant. - **Good versus bad research questions:** - **Types of problems:** - **Solvable:** Problems that can be answered using existing research methods. - **Unsolvable:** Problems that are not solvable using existing research methods. ### Ways of Stating A Hypothesis - **General implication:** A statement that expresses a relationship between variables in the form of "If A, then B." - **Direct statement:** A statement that directly asserts a relationship between variables. ### Functions of Hypotheses - **Testing theories:** Hypotheses help test scientific theories. - **Suggesting new theories:** Hypotheses can lead to the development of new theories. - **Providing descriptions:** Hypotheses can describe a phenomenon or behaviour. - **Refuting common sense notions:** Hypotheses can challenge assumptions about behaviour. - **Altering orientation:** Hypotheses can change perspectives about the world. ### Validity in Research or Experimental Validity - **Internal validity:** The extent to which the experimenter is able to confidently attribute the effects of an experiment to the independent variable, rather than to extraneous variables. - **External validity:** The extent to which the results of an experiment are generalizable to other settings, populations, or times. ### Stages in Research - **Identifying a problem:** The researcher must identify a research problem. - **Formulating a hypothesis:** The researcher develops a testable proposition about the relationship between variables. - **Formulating research design:** The researcher designs a plan for conducting the research. - **Constructing devices for observation and measurement:** The researcher selects or creates tools for collecting data. - **Summarizing results:** The researcher summarizes the findings of the research. - **Carrying out statistical analysis:** The researcher uses statistical methods to analyze the data. - **Drawing conclusions:** The researcher draws conclusions about the findings of the study. ### Identifying Threats to Reliability and Validity - **Experimenter bias:** The experimenter's expectations can influence the results of the study. - **Hawthorne effect:** Participants may change their behaviour because they know that they are being observed. - **Diffusion of treatment:** Participants in one condition may learn about the other condition and change their behaviour. - **Subject bias:** The subjects' expectations or prejudices can influence their responses. - **Floor and ceiling effects:** The measurement instrument may not be sensitive enough to detect differences between participants at the extremes of the measurement scale. - **Technical limitations:** The researcher may lack the necessary resources or technology to conduct the research effectively. ### How to control Threats to Reliability and Validity - **Controlling experimenter bias:** Use double-blind procedures, where neither the participants nor the researchers are aware of which condition the participants are in. - **Controlling Hawthorne effect:** Conduct the research in a natural setting, or use unobtrusive observation methods. - **Controlling diffusion of treatment:** Keep the groups separate and prevent communication between them. - **Controlling subject bias:** Use deception or disguise the purpose of the study. - **Controlling floor and ceiling effects:** Use a measurement instrument that is appropriate for the range of scores expected in the study. - **Improving technical limitations:** Obtain the resources or technology necessary to ensure the validity of the study.