Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 4th Edition PDF

 This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher res...

 This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest. Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  4e Research Methods FOR THE Behavioral Sciences FREDERICK J GRAVETTER State University of New York College at Brockport LORI-ANN B. FORZANO State University of New York College at Brockport Australia Brazil Japan Korea Mexico Singapore Spain United Kingdom United States Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences, © 2012, 2009 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning 4th edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the Frederick J Gravetter and Lori-Ann B. copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used Forzano in any form or by any means, graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, Publisher: Linda Schreiber-Ganster digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or Acquisitions Editor: Tim Matray information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted Editorial Assistant: Alicia McLaughlin under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Media Editor: Mary Noel Marketing Manager: Jessica Egbert Marketing Assistant: Anna Andersen Marketing Communications Manager: Talia For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Wise Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706. Content Project Manager: Charlene M. For permission to use material from this text or product, submit Carpentier all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions. Design Director: Rob Hugel Further permissions questions can be e-mailed to [email protected]. Art Director: Vernon Boes Print Buyer: Rebecca Cross Rights Acquisitions Specialist: Dean Library of Congress Control Number: 2010931693 Dauphinais ISBN-13: 978-1-111-34225-8 Production Service: Graphic World Inc. ISBN-10: 1-111-34225-3 Text Designer: Lisa Henry Photo Researcher: PreMediaGlobal Wadsworth Text Researcher: Sarah D’Stair 20 Davis Drive Copy Editor: Graphic World Inc. Belmont, CA 94002-3098 USA Illustrator: Graphic World Inc. Cover/Interior Design: Lisa Henry Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning Cover image: © Orla/Shutterstock.com solutions with office locations around the globe, including Compositor: Graphic World Inc. Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan. Locate your local office at www.cengage.com/global. Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. To learn more about Wadsworth visit www.cengage.com/ Wadsworth Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.CengageBrain.com. Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14 13 12 11 10 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  BR IE F C ON T E N T S P R E FA C E xv ABOUT THE AUTHORS xii 1 Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge, and the Scientific Method 1 2 Research Ideas 39 3 Defining and Measuring Variables 71 4 Ethics in Research 107 5 Selecting Research Participants 137 6 Research Strategies and Validity 157 7 The Experimental Research Strategy 195 8 Experimental Designs: Between-Subjects Design 227 9 Experimental Designs: Within-Subjects Design 253 10 The Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental Strategies: Nonequivalent Group, Pre–Post, and Developmental Designs 281 11 Factorial Designs 309 12 The Correlational Research Strategy 343 13 The Descriptive Research Strategy 363 14 Single-Subject Research Designs 395 15 Statistical Evaluation of Data 431 16 Writing an APA-Style Research Report 487 APPENDICES A Random Number Table and Instruction 519 B Statistics Demonstrations and Statistical Tables 523 C Instructions for Using SPSS 553 D Sample APA-Style Research Report Manuscript for Publication 577 GLOSSARY 589 REFERENCES 6 01 NAME INDE X 6 0 7 S U B J E C T I N D E X 6 11 iii Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  C ON T E N T S P R E FA C E xvii ABOUT THE AUTHORS xxv 1 Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge, and the Scientific Method 1 Chapter Overview 1 1.1 Introduction to Research Methodology 2 Why Take A Research Methods Course? 2 Other Reasons for Taking a Research Methods Course 3 1.2 Methods of Knowing and Acquiring Knowledge 5 The Method of Tenacity 6 The Method of Intuition 7 The Method of Authority 7 The Rational Method 10 The Empirical Method 13 Summary 15 1.3 The Scientific Method 16 The Steps of the Scientific Method 16 Other Elements of the Scientific Method 21 Science versus Pseudoscience 24 1.4 The Research Process 25 Step 1: Find a Research Idea: Select a Topic and Search the Literature to Find an Unanswered Question 27 Step 2: Form a Hypothesis and a Prediction 28 Step 3: Determine How You Will Defi ne and Measure Your Variables 32 Step 4: Identify and Select the Participants or Subjects for the Study 32 Step 5: Select a Research Strategy 33 Step 6: Select a Research Design 34 Step 7: Conduct the Study 34 Step 8: Evaluate the Data 34 Step 9: Report the Results 34 Step 10: Refi ne or Reformulate Your Research Idea 35 v Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. vi Contents Chapter Summary 36 Combine or Contrast Existing Key Words 36 Results 65 Converting a Research Idea into a Exercises 36 Hypothesis and Prediction 65 Learning Activities 37 2.6 Reading and Understanding a Web Resources 38 Research Article 66 Chapter Summary 68 2 Research Ideas 39 Key Words 68 Chapter Overview 39 Exercises 68 2.1 Getting Started 40 Learning Activities 69 Pick a Topic in Which You Are Web Resources 70 Interested 40 Do Your Homework 40 Keep an Open Mind 41 3 Defining and Measuring Focus, Focus, Focus 41 Variables 71 Take One Step at a Time 41 Chapter Overview 71 2.2 Finding a General Topic Area 42 3.1 An Overview of Measurement 72 Common Sources of Research Topics 42 3.2 Constructs and Operational Common Mistakes in Choosing a Definitions 74 Research Topic 44 Theories and Constructs 74 Operational Defi nitions 75 2.3 Finding and Using Background Limitations of Operational Literature 46 Defi nitions 76 Primary and Secondary Sources 48 Using Operational Defi nitions 76 The Purpose of a Literature Search 49 3.3 Validity and Reliability of Measurement 77 2.4 Conducting a Literature Search 52 Validity of Measurement 77 Starting Points 52 Reliability of Measurement 84 Using Online Databases 52 The Relationship Between Reliability Using PsycINFO 54 and Validity 88 Beginning a Literature Search 57 The Process of Conducting a Literature 3.4 Scales of Measurement 89 Search 58 The Nominal Scale 89 Searching Forward 63 The Ordinal Scale 89 Taking Notes 63 Interval and Ratio Scales 90 Selecting a Scale of Measurement 92 2.5 Finding an Idea for a Research Study and Converting the Idea 3.5 Modalities of Measurement 93 into a Hypothesis and a Self-Report Measures 93 Prediction 64 Physiological Measures 94 Find Suggestions for Future Behavioral Measures 95 Research 64 3.6 Other Aspects of Measurement 96 Modify or Extend an Existing Multiple Measures 96 Study—Critical Reading 64 Sensitivity and Range Effects 96 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Contents vii Artifacts: Experimental Bias and Participant Reactivity 97 5 Selecting Research Selecting a Measurement Participants 137 Procedure 101 Chapter Overview 137 Chapter Summary 102 5.1 Introduction 138 Key Words 103 Populations and Samples 138 Representative Samples 140 Exercises 103 Sample Size 141 Learning Activities 104 Sampling Basics 143 Web Resources 105 5.2 Probability Sampling Methods 144 Simple Random Sampling 144 4 Ethics in Research 107 Systematic Sampling 146 Stratified Random Sampling 147 Chapter Overview 107 Proportionate Stratified Random 4.1 Introduction 108 Sampling 148 Ethical Concerns Throughout the Cluster Sampling 149 Research Process 108 Combined-Strategy Sampling 150 The Basic Categories of Ethical A Summary of Probability Sampling Responsibility 109 Methods 150 4.2 Ethical Issues and Human 5.3 Nonprobability Sampling Participants in Research 109 Methods 151 Historical Highlights of Treatment of Convenience Sampling 151 Human Participants 109 Quota Sampling 152 American Psychological Association Chapter Summary 154 Guidelines 112 The Institutional Review Board 125 Key Words 154 4.3 Ethical Issues and Nonhuman Exercises 155 Subjects in Research 127 Learning Activities 155 Historical Highlights of Treatment of Web Resources 156 Nonhuman Subjects 128 American Psychological Association Guidelines 128 6 Research Strategies and The Institutional Animal Care and Use Validity 157 Committee 129 Chapter Overview 157 4.4 Ethical Issues and Scientific 6.1 Quantitative and Qualitative Integrity 130 Research 158 Fraud in Science 130 Plagiarism 132 6.2 Strategies for Quantitative Research 159 Chapter Summary 133 The Descriptive Research Key Words 135 Strategy 160 Exercises 135 Relationships Between Variables 160 Learning Activities 136 Web Resources 136 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. viii Contents The Correlational Research Strategy: 6.6 More About Internal and External Measuring Two Variables for Each Validity 185 Individual 161 Balancing Internal and External Comparing Two or More Sets of Validity 187 Scores: The Experimental, Artifacts: Threats to Both Internal and Quasi-Experimental, and External Validity 187 Nonexperimental Research Exaggerated Variables 188 Strategies 162 Validity and Individual Research The Experimental Research Strategies 189 Strategy 163 6.7 Research Strategies, Research Designs, The Quasi-Experimental Research and Research Procedures 189 Strategy 163 Research Strategies 189 The Nonexperimental Research Research Designs 189 Strategy 164 Research Procedures 190 Research Strategy Summary 165 Data Structures and Statistical Chapter Summary 191 Analysis 165 Key Words 192 Summary 167 Exercises 192 6.3 Internal and External Validity 167 Learning Activities 193 External Validity 168 Web Resources 194 Internal Validity 169 Validity and the Quality of a Research Strategy 170 7 The Experimental Research 6.4 Threats to External Validity 171 Strategy 195 Category 1: Generalizing Across Chapter Overview 195 Participants or Subjects 171 Category 2: Generalizing Across 7.1 Cause-and-Effect Relationships 196 Features of a Study 174 Terminology for the Experimental Category 3: Generalizing Across Research Strategy 198 Features of the Measures 175 Causation and the Third-Variable Problem 199 6.5 Threats to Internal Validity 176 Causation and the Directionality Extraneous Variables 176 Problem 200 Confounding Variables 177 Controlling Nature 201 Extraneous Variables, Confounding Variables, and Internal 7.2 Distinguishing Elements of an Validity 179 Experiment 202 Environmental Variables: General Manipulation 202 Threats to Internal Validity for All Control 205 Studies 180 7.3 Dealing with Extraneous Individual Differences: Threats Variables 207 to Internal Validity for Studies Control by Holding Constant or Comparing Different Groups 181 Matching 209 Time-Related Variables: Threats Control by Randomization 211 to Internal Validity for Studies Comparing Methods of Control 212 Comparing One Group over Advantages and Disadvantages of Time 181 Control Methods 213 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Contents ix 7.4 Control Groups 214 8.4 Individual Differences and No-Treatment Control Groups 214 Variability 238 Placebo Control Groups 215 Differences Between Treatments and 7.5 Manipulation Checks 216 Variance Within Treatments 241 Minimizing Variance Within 7.6 Increasing External Validity: Treatments 241 Simulation and Field Studies 218 Summary and Recommendations 243 Simulation 218 Field Studies 220 8.5 Other Threats to Internal Validity of Advantages and Disadvantages Between-Subjects Designs 243 of Simulation and Field Differential Attrition 243 Studies 221 Communication Between Groups 244 Chapter Summary 222 8.6 Applications and Statistical Analyses Key Words 223 of Between-Subjects Designs 245 Exercises 223 Two-Group Mean Difference 245 Learning Activities 225 Comparing Means for More Than Two Web Resources 225 Groups 247 Comparing Proportions for Two or More Groups 248 8 Experimental Designs: Chapter Summary 250 Between-Subjects Design 227 Key Words 250 Chapter Overview 227 Exercises 250 8.1 Introduction to Between-Subjects Learning Activities 251 Experiments 228 Web Resources 252 Review of the Experimental Research Strategy 228 Characteristics of Between-Subjects 9 Experimental Designs: Designs 228 Advantages and Disadvantages of Within-Subjects Design 253 Between-Subjects Designs 230 Chapter Overview 253 8.2 Individual Differences as 9.1 Introduction to Within-Subjects Confounding Variables 232 Experiments 254 Other Confounding Variables 233 Characteristics of Within-Subjects Equivalent Groups 234 Designs 254 8.3 Limiting Confounding by Individual Advantages of Within-Subjects Differences 234 Designs 255 Random Assignment Disadvantages of Within-Subjects (Randomization) 235 Designs 260 Matching Groups (Matched 9.2 Threats to Internal Validity for Assignment) 236 Within-Subjects Designs 261 Holding Values Constant Separating Time-Related Factors and or Restricting Range of Order Effects 262 Variability 237 Order Effects as a Confounding Summary and Recommendations 237 Variable 263 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. x Contents 9.3 Dealing with Time-Related Threats The Posttest-Only Nonequivalent and Order Effects 265 Control Group Design 288 Controlling Time 265 The Pretest–Posttest Nonequivalent Switch to a Between-Subjects Control Group Design 291 Design 266 10.3 Within-Subjects Nonexperimental and Counterbalancing: Matching Quasi-Experimental Designs: Treatments with Respect to Pre–Post Designs 292 Time 266 Threats to Internal Validity for Limitations of Counterbalancing 269 Pre–Post Designs 293 9.4 Applications and Statistical The One-Group Pretest–Posttest Analyses of Within-Subjects Design 293 Designs 272 The Time-Series Design 294 Two-Treatment Designs 272 Single-Case Applications of Multiple-Treatment Designs 273 Time-Series Designs 297 9.5 Comparing Within-Subjects and 10.4 Developmental Research Between-Subjects Designs 274 Designs 297 Matched-Subject Designs 275 The Cross-Sectional Developmental Chapter Summary 277 Research Design 297 The Longitudinal Developmental Key Words 278 Research Design 300 Exercises 278 10.5 Terminology in Nonexperimental, Learning Activities 278 Quasi-experimental, and Web Resources 279 Developmental Designs 304 Chapter Summary 305 10 The Nonexperimental and Key Words 306 Quasi-Experimental Strategies: Exercises 306 Nonequivalent Group, Learning Activities 307 Pre–Post, and Developmental Web Resources 308 Designs 281 Chapter Overview 281 11 Factorial Designs 309 10.1 Nonexperimental and Chapter Overview 309 Quasi-Experimental Research 11.1 Introduction to Factorial Strategies 282 Designs 310 The Structure of Nonexperimental Experimental Factorial Designs 310 and Quasi-Experimental 11.2 Main Effects and Interactions 312 Designs 283 Identifying Interactions 315 10.2 Between-Subjects Nonexperimental 11.3 More About Interactions 317 and Quasi-Experimental Designs: Alternative Defi nitions of an Nonequivalent Group Designs 285 Interaction 317 Threats to Internal Validity for Interpreting Main Effects and Nonequivalent Group Designs 285 Interactions 319 The Differential Research Independence of Main Effects and Design 286 Interactions 321 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Contents xi 11.4 Types of Factorial Designs 322 12.5 Relationships with More than Two Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects Variables 358 Designs 323 Chapter Summary 359 Experimental and Nonexperimental or Quasi-Experimental Research Key Words 359 Strategies 325 Exercises 359 Pretest–Posttest Control Group Learning Activities 360 Designs 328 Higher-Order Factorial Designs 329 Web Resources 361 11.5 Applications of Factorial Designs 329 13 The Descriptive Research Expanding and Replicating a Previous Strategy 363 Study 330 Reducing Variance in Between-Subjects Chapter Overview 363 Designs 332 13.1 An Introduction to Descriptive Evaluating Order Effects in Research 364 Within-Subjects Designs 333 13.2 The Observational Research Chapter Summary 339 Design 365 Key Words 340 Behavioral Observation 365 Exercises 340 Content Analysis and Archival Research 367 Learning Activities 342 Types of Observation and Web Resources 342 Examples 368 Strengths and Weaknesses of 12 The Correlational Research Observational Research Designs 372 Strategy 343 13.3 The Survey Research Design 373 Chapter Overview 343 Types of Questions 374 12.1 An Introduction to Correlational Constructing a Survey 378 Research 344 Selecting Relevant and Representative 12.2 The Data for a Correlational Individuals 379 Study 345 Administering a Survey 380 Measuring Relationships 346 Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Evaluating Relationships for Research 385 Non-numerical Scores 349 13.4 The Case Study Design 386 Comparing Correlational, Applications of the Case Study Experimental, and Differential Design 387 Research 350 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Case 12.3 Applications of the Correlational Study Design 388 Strategy 351 Chapter Summary 391 Prediction 351 Key Words 391 Reliability and Validity 352 Evaluating Theories 353 Exercises 392 Interpreting a Correlation 353 Learning Activities 392 12.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Web Resources 393 Correlational Research Strategy 355 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xii Contents 14 Single-Subject Research 15 Statistical Evaluation Designs 395 of Data 431 Chapter Overview 395 Chapter Overview 431 14.1 Introduction 396 15.1 The Role of Statistics in the Research Evaluating the Results from a Process 432 Single-Subject Study 397 Planning Ahead 432 14.2 Phases and Phase Changes 398 Statistics Terminology 433 Level, Trend, and Stability 399 15.2 Descriptive Statistics 434 Changing Phases 403 Frequency Distributions 434 Visual Inspection Techniques 404 Measures of Central Tendency 437 14.3 The ABAB Reversal Design 407 Measures of Variability 439 Limitations of the ABAB Design 411 Describing Interval and Ratio Data Variations on the ABAB Design: (Numerical Scores) 441 Creating More Complex Phase- Describing Non-numerical Data from Change Designs 412 Nominal and Ordinal Scales of Measurement 442 14.4 Multiple-Baseline Designs 414 Using Graphs to Summarize Rationale for the Multiple-Baseline Data 443 Design 417 Correlations 446 Strengths and Weaknesses Regression 449 of the Multiple-Baseline Multiple Regression 451 Design 418 15.3 Inferential Statistics 451 14.5 Other Single-Subject Designs 419 Hypothesis Tests 453 Dismantling, or Component-Analysis, Reporting Results from a Hypothesis Design 419 Test 458 The Changing-Criterion Errors in Hypothesis Testing 459 Design 422 Factors that Influence the Outcome of The Alternating-Treatments a Hypothesis Test 461 Design 423 Supplementing Hypothesis Tests 14.6 General Strengths and Weaknesses of with Measures of Effect Single-Subject Designs 425 Size 463 Advantages of Single-Subject 15.4 Examples of Hypothesis Tests 468 Designs 426 Comparing Groups of Scores: Disadvantages of Single-Subject Statistical Tests for the Designs 427 Experimental, Quasi-Experimental, Chapter Summary 428 and Nonexperimental Research Key Words 429 Strategies 469 Exercises 429 Tests for Mean Differences 469 Comparing Proportions 473 Learning Activities 430 Evaluating Relationships: Statistical Web Resources 430 Tests for the Correlational Research Strategy 475 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Contents xiii 15.5 Special Statistics for Research 477 Appendix 509 The Spearman-Brown Formula 478 Conference Presentations: Papers and The Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 479 Posters 509 Cronbach’s Alpha 479 16.4 Submitting a Manuscript for Cohen’s Kappa 480 Publication 512 Chapter Summary 483 16.5 Writing a Research Proposal 513 Key Words 483 Why Write a Research Proposal? 513 Exercises 484 How to Write a Research Proposal 514 Learning Activities 485 Chapter Summary 515 Web Resources 486 Key Words 515 Exercises 515 16 Writing an APA-Style Research Learning Activities 516 Report 487 Web Resources 517 Chapter Overview 487 16.1 The Goal of a Research Report 488 APPENDICES 16.2 General APA Guidelines for Writing A Random Number Table Style and Format 489 and Instruction 519 Some Elements of Writing Style 489 Guidelines for Typing or Word B Statistics Demonstrations Processing 493 and Statistical Tables 523 Manuscript Pages 494 16.3 The Elements of an APA-Style C Instructions for Using SPSS 553 Research Report 494 D Sample APA-Style Research Report Title Page 494 Manuscript for Publication 577 Abstract 496 Introduction 498 Method 501 GLOSSARY 589 Results 503 REFERENCES 601 Discussion 503 References 505 NAME INDE X 607 Tables and Figures 507 SUBJECT INDE X 611 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  P R E FAC E For years we have watched students come into the psychology research meth- ods course with a fundamental fear of science. Somewhere, these students seem to have developed the idea that psychology is interesting and fun, but sci- ence is tedious and difficult. Many students even resent the fact that they have to take a research methods course: “After all, I want to be a psychologist, not a scientist.” As the semester progresses, however, most of these students begin to lose their fears, and many of them actually begin to enjoy the course. Much of this change in attitude is based on a realization that science is simply the technique that psychologists use to gather information and to answer questions. As long as the questions are interesting, then the task of answering them should also be interesting. When people watch a magician do an amazing trick, the common response is to ask, “How was that done?” In the same way, when you learn something interesting about human behavior, you ought to ask, “How do they know that?” The answer is that most of the existing knowledge in the behavioral sci- ences was gathered using scientific research methods. If you are really curious about human behavior, then you should also be curious about the process of studying human behavior. This textbook has developed from years of teaching research methods. During that time, we would try different examples or different explanations in the classroom and watch the students’ response. Over the years, the course evolved into a less intimidating and more interesting approach that seems to be very effective in getting students interested in research. Our students have been very helpful in this evolutionary process. Their feedback has directed our progress through the development of the research methods course and the writing of this book. In many respects they have been our teachers. OVERVIEW OF TEXT Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences is intended for an undergraduate Research Methods course in Psychology or any of the behavioral sciences. We have organized the text according to the research process, making it xv Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xvi Preface appropriate for use in a lecture-only class or a class with a lab component. The text discusses in detail both experimental and nonexperimental research strate- gies. We use a rather informal writing style that emphasizes discussion and explanation of topics. Pedagogical aids include: preview outlines, chapter over- views, Learning Check questions throughout each chapter, a running glossary, chapter summaries, a list of Key Words for quick review at the end of each chap- ter, a set of end-of-chapter exercises and activities, and a Web Resources section that directs students to learning aids at a textbook companion website. ORGANIZATION OF TEXT Overall, the book is organized around the framework of the research process—from start to fi nish. This step-by-step approach emphasizes the decisions researchers must make at each stage of the process. The chapters of the text have been organized into five sections. Chapters 1 and 2 focus on the earliest considerations in the research process, presenting an over- view of the scientifi c method and including tips for fi nding a new idea for research and developing a research hypothesis. Chapters 3 through 6 focus on the preliminary decisions in the research process, and include informa- tion on how to measure variables, maintaining ethical responsibility throughout the research process, selecting participants, and choosing a valid research strategy. Chapters 7 through 9 introduce the experimental research strategy and provide the details of between-subjects and within- subjects experimental designs. Chapters 10 through 14 present other (nonexperimental) research strategies and their associated research designs. Chapters 15 and 16 focus on the ending decisions in the research process, and include information on how to evaluate, interpret, and communicate the results of the research process. Although the chapters are organized in a series that we view as appropri- ate for a one-semester research methods course, the order of chapters can be varied to meet the requirements of different course instructors. For example, the chapters on statistics and APA style can easily be presented much earlier in the course. WRITING STYLE We have attempted to use a rather informal, conversational style of writing that emphasizes discussion and explanation of topics rather than a simple “cookbook” presentation of facts. We have found this style to be very success- ful in our own classes and in Dr. Gravetter’s co-authored textbook, Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences. Students fi nd this style very readable and unintim- idating. This style is particularly useful for material that students perceive as being difficult, including the topic of this text, research methodology. PEDAGOGICAL AIDS One item that has received particular attention as we developed this text is the use of a variety of pedagogical aids. Each chapter includes many opportunities Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Preface xvii for students to interact with the material, rather than simply be passively exposed to the material. In addition, the Learning Checks and the end-of- chapter exercises and activities may be used by the instructor as prepackaged assignments. Each chapter contains the following pedagogical elements: 1. Chapter Outline: Each chapter begins with an outline of the material to be presented to help students see the organization of the material in the chapter. 2. Chapter Overview: A brief summary of the contents of the chapter is presented at the beginning of each chapter to prepare students for the material to come. 3. Multiple sections: Each chapter is divided into multiple sections and subsections that are clearly defi ned with headings to help break the ma- terial down into smaller, more manageable chunks. 4. Definitions: Each Key Word used in the text is fi rst highlighted. At the end of the paragraph that contains a new Key Word, a clearly identi- fied, concise defi nition is provided. 5. Examples: Numerous examples are used to illustrate concepts pre- sented in the text. Some examples are hypothetical, but most are se- lected from current or classic studies in psychology. 6. Boxes: Boxed material, separate from the regular text, is used to offer additional, interesting information to help demonstrate a point. 7. Figures: When appropriate, diagrams or graphs are included to illus- trate a point made in the text. 8. Tables: Occasionally, tables are used to present information that may best be depicted in a list format. 9. Margin Notes: Where appropriate, brief notes are presented in the mar- gins of the text. These notes are used to offer reminders or cautions to the students. 10. Learning Checks: At the end of major sections within each chapter, a set of questions is provided to help students test how well they have learned the material. 11. Chapter Summaries: At the end of each chapter a general summary is presented to help students review the main points of the chapter. 12. Key Words: At the end of each chapter a list of the Key Words used in the chapter is presented. The Key Words are listed in their order of ap- pearance in the chapter so that related terms are grouped together and so that students can spot parts of the chapter that they may need to re- view again. 13. Exercises: At the end of each chapter are questions and activities for students to answer and perform. The intent of the exercises is to help students test how well they have learned the material by having them apply what they have learned. Additionally, the instructor of the course can use the exercises as assignments. 14. Learning Activities: At the end of each chapter are one or two sug- gested activities that provide students with an additional learning op- portunity to apply information presented in the text. Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xviii Preface 15. Web Resources: The final item in each chapter is a reminder about the learning resources available at the textbook companion website. The site contains flashcards with the new terms introduced in the chapter, a quiz covering the chapter content, access to workshops relevant to the chapter, and other learning aids. NEW TO THIS EDITION Throughout the book, research examples have been updated and hypothetical results have been replaced with real research examples. Also, several Learning Checks as well as end-of-chapter exercises and activities have been revised or replaced. In Chapter 1, a new section on science and pseudoscience has been added. Also, we simplified the research process by separating the former step 1 into two separate steps. The distinction between the rational method and the empirical method was also clarified, and Figure 1.3 was revised to make it more compatible with the concepts of induction and deduction. In Chapter 2, we updated the text to be compatible with the changes to the research process in Chapter 1, and we updated the database information in Table 2.1 and Box 2.2. Tables 2.2 and 2.3 were revised to accommodate the guidelines from the new edition of the APA Publication Manual (6th ed.), and a new section on taking notes while conducting a literature search was added. Material from the former Box 3.1 has been incorporated into a new section of text in Chapter 3 to emphasize its importance. Information was added to describe how validity and reliability can be established with consistent positive and negative relationships. A new subsection on artifacts, inducing experimenter bias and participant reactivity, was created by moving material from Chapter 6 of the 3rd edition. In Chapter 4, the sections on ethical guidelines for research with humans and nonhumans were updated, and the discussion of plagiarism was greatly expanded, including examples of plagiarism in a new table. The introduction to Chapter 5 was edited to clarify the concept that sample selection can influence research results, and information about representativeness of the accessible population to the target population was added. In Chapter 6, the concept that different research questions can require different research strategies was clarified. We also made more consistent and more frequent cross-references to other chapters in which research strategies are discussed in more detail. The discussion of internal validity was edited to emphasize that threats are from different types of variables. The former section on validity and individual research strategies was edited drastically to minimize redundancy. Chapter 7 was edited to clarify the temporal nature of cause-and-effect relationships. Also, the text was simplified by deleting a redundant section on randomization. Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Preface xix The first figure in Chapter 8 was revised to show how a between-