Actual Biology Final Study Guide PDF

‭Chapter 14: Digestive System‬ ‭1.‬ F ‭ unctions of the Digestive System‬ ‭-Ingestion: Taking in food‬ ‭-Digestion: Mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into smaller‬ ‭molecules‬ ‭-Absorption: Nutrients pass from the digestive system i...

‭Chapter 14: Digestive System‬ ‭1.‬ F ‭ unctions of the Digestive System‬ ‭-Ingestion: Taking in food‬ ‭-Digestion: Mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into smaller‬ ‭molecules‬ ‭-Absorption: Nutrients pass from the digestive system into the bloodstream‬ ‭-Elimination: Removal of indigetible waste‬ ‭2.‬ ‭Anatomy of the Digestive System Including Specialized Structures‬ ‭-Mouth: Begins digestion with chewing (mechanical digestion) and saliva‬ ‭containing amylase (chemical digestion)‬ ‭*Salivary Glands: Parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands produce‬ ‭saliva‬ ‭-Pharynx: Connects mouth to esophagus; pathway for food and air‬ ‭-Esophagus: Muscular tube using peristalsis to push food toward the stomach‬ ‭-Stomach: Secretes gastric juices containing hydrochloric acid and pepsin for‬ ‭protein digestion‬ ‭*Special Structures: Rugae (folds) allow expansion‬ ‭-Small Intestine:‬ ‭-Sections: Duodenum (digestion), jejunum, ileum (absorption)‬ ‭-Special structures: Villi and microvilli increase surface area for nutrient‬ ‭absorption‬ ‭-Large Intestine:‬ ‭-Parts: Cecum, ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon‬ ‭-Function: Absorbs water and forms feces‬ ‭-Rectum and Anus: Final part of the digestive tract; stores and eliminates‬ ‭waste‬ ‭3.‬ ‭Tracing Food Through the System‬ ‭-Mouth: Carbohydrates begin digestion by salivary amylase‬ ‭-Stomach: Proteins are broken down by pepsin in an acidic environment‬ ‭-Small Intestine:‬ ‭-Enzymes:‬ ‭-Pancreatic amylase: Continues carbohydrate digestion‬ ‭-Trypsin: Digests proteins‬ ‭-Lipase: Digest Fats‬ ‭-Bile: Produced by the liver, stored in the gallbladder, emulsifies fats‬ ‭-Large intestine: Absorbs water and produces vitamin K with the help of gut‬ ‭bacteria‬ ‭4.‬ ‭Accessory Glands‬ ‭-Liver: Produces bile; detoxifies blood; stores gylcogen‬  ‭ Gallbladder: Stores and releases bile into duodeum‬ - ‭-Pancreas: Secretes digestive enzymes (amylase, lipase, trypsin) and‬ ‭bicarbonate to neutrailize stomach acid‬ ‭Chapter 15: Respiratory System‬ ‭1.‬ F ‭ unctions of the Respritory System‬ ‭-Gas Exchange: Supplies oxygen to the blood and removes carbon dioxide‬ ‭-Sound Production: Air passes through larynx for speech‬ ‭-Regulation of Blood pH: Maintains balance through CO2 levels‬ ‭2.‬ ‭Mechanics of Breathing‬ ‭-Insipiration (Inhalation):‬ ‭-Diaphragm contracts and moves downward‬ ‭-Intercostal muscles contract, lifting the rib cage‬ ‭-Thoracic cavity volume increases reducing pressure and pushing air out‬ ‭the lungs‬ ‭-Expiration (Exhalation):‬ ‭-Diaphragm relaxes, lowering the rib cage‬ ‭-Intercostal muscles relax, lowering the rib cage‬ ‭-Thoracic cavity volume decreases, increasing pressure and pushing air‬ ‭out‬ ‭3.‬ ‭Specialized Structures in the Respiratory System‬ ‭-Trachea: Windpipe supported by cartilage rings‬ ‭-Bronchi and Bronchioles: Branch from the trachea into each lung, then‬ ‭divide into smaller tubes‬ ‭-Alveoli: Tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs; surrounded by capillaries‬ ‭Chapter 12: Cardiovascular System‬ ‭1.‬ F ‭ unctions of the Cardiovascular‬ ‭-Transportation: Moves oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products‬ ‭-Protection: Carries white blood cells and antibodies‬ ‭-Regulation: Maintains body temperature and pH balance‬ ‭2.‬ ‭Anatomy of the Cardiovascular System‬ ‭-Heart:‬ ‭-Chambers: Right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle‬ ‭-Valves: Tricuspid, pulmonary, mitral (bicuspid), and aortic valves ensure‬ ‭one-way blood flow‬ ‭-Septum: Divides the heart into left and right sides‬ ‭-Blood Vessels:‬  ‭ Arteries: Carry Blood away from the heart; thick-walled‬ - ‭-Veins: Return blood to the heart; have valves to preevent backflow‬ ‭3.‬ ‭Tracing Blood Through the System‬ ‭-Pathway:‬ ‭-Deoxygenated blood: Body -> vena cavae -> right atrium -> tricuspid‬ ‭valve -> right ventricle -> pulmonary valve -> pulmonary arteries -> lungs‬ ‭-Oxygenated blood: Lungs -> pulmonary veins -> left atrium -> mitral‬ ‭valve -> aortic valve -> aorta -> body‬ ‭4.‬ ‭Components of Blood‬ ‭-Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Contain hemoglobin for oxygen transport‬ ‭-White Blood Cells (WBCs): Part of the immune system‬ ‭-Platelets: Help with blood clotting‬ ‭-Plasma: Liquid component carrying nutrients, hormones, and proteins‬ ‭5.‬ ‭Functions of Blood Cells‬ ‭-RBCs: Transport oxygen from lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide backs to‬ ‭the lungs‬ ‭-WBCs: Defend against pathogens‬ ‭-Platelets: Prevent blood loss by forming clots‬ ‭Chapter 21: Nervous System‬ ‭1.‬ ‭Neuron Anatomy‬ ‭-Cell Body (Soma): Contains the nucleus and organelles‬ ‭-Dendrites: Branch-like structures that receive signals from other neurons‬ ‭-Axon: Long fiber transmitting electrical impulses‬ ‭-Myelin Sheath: Fatty Layer insulating the axon, speeding up signal‬ ‭transmission‬ ‭-Synaptic Teminals: Release neurotransmitter to communicate with other‬ ‭cells‬ ‭2.‬ ‭White Matter vs. Gray Matter‬ ‭-White Matter: Composed of myelinated axons; found in deeper parts of the‬ ‭brian‬ ‭-Gray Matter: Contains neuron cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers; found in‬ ‭the brain’s cortex and inner spinal cord‬ ‭3.‬ ‭Peripheral vs. Central Nervous System‬ ‭-Central Nervous System (CNS): Composed of the brian and spinal cord‬ ‭-Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Includes sensory and motor neurons‬ ‭connecting the CNS to the body‬ ‭4.‬ ‭Parts of the human brain‬ ‭-Cerebrum: Largest part; controls voluntary activities, reasoning, planning,‬ ‭memory‬ ‭-Cerebullum: Coordinates movement and balance‬  ‭-Brainstem:‬ ‭-Midbrain: Controls eye movement, auditory/visual processing‬ ‭-Pons: Relays information between the cerebrum and cerebellum‬ ‭-Medulla Oblongata: Regulates heartbeat, breathing‬ ‭-Other Parts:‬ ‭-Thalamus: Sensory relay station‬ ‭-Hypothalamus: Regulates homeostasis, hunger, and emotions‬ ‭Chapter 1: Living Things, Chemistry Cells, and Membranes‬ ‭1.‬ ‭Levels of Organization of Living Things‬ ‭-Cell: Basic unit of life‬ ‭-Tissue: Group of similar cells performing a specific function‬ ‭-Organ: Composed of tissues functioning together‬ ‭-Organ System: Group of Organ: Composed of tissues function‬ ‭-Organism: A Complete living entity‬ ‭-Population: Group of the same species in an area‬ ‭-Community: Multiple populations interacting in an area‬ ‭-Ecosystem: Community plus its physical environment‬ ‭-Biosphere: All ecosystems combined on Earth‬ ‭2.‬ ‭Characteristics of Living Things‬ ‭-Composed of cells‬ ‭-Respond to stimuli‬ ‭-Maintain homeostasis‬ ‭-Undergo metabolism for energy‬ ‭-Grow and develop‬ ‭-Reproduce and pass genetic information‬ ‭-Evolve over generations‬ ‭Chapter 2: Basic Chemistry and Organic Chemistry‬ ‭1.‬ ‭Basic Chemistry‬ ‭-Structure of an Atom:‬ ‭-Protons: Positively charged, found in the nucleus‬ ‭-Neutrons: Neutral, found in the nucleus‬ ‭-Electrons: Negatively charged, orbit the nucleus‬ ‭-Atomic Number: Number of protons in an atom‬ ‭-Atomic Mass: Sum of protons and neutrons‬ ‭-Ionic Bonding: Transfer of electrons resulting in oppositely charged ions‬ ‭(e.g., NaCI)‬ ‭-Covalent Bonding: Sharing of electrons between atoms (e.g., H2O)‬ ‭2.‬ ‭Organic Chemistry‬ ‭-Carbohydrates:‬  ‭ Monomers: Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose)‬ - ‭-Polymers: Polypeptides‬ ‭-Functions: Enzymatic activity, structural support‬ ‭-Proteins:‬ ‭-Monomers: Amino Acids‬ ‭-Polymers: Polypeptides‬ ‭-Functions: Enzymatic activity, structural support, signaling‬ ‭-Lipids:‬ ‭-Monomers: Glycerol and fatty acids‬ ‭-Types: Triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids‬ ‭-Functions: Energy storage, membrane structure, hormone production‬ ‭-Nucleic acids:‬ ‭-Monomers: Nucleotides‬ ‭-Polymers: DNA and RNA‬ ‭-Functions: Genetic information storage and transmission‬ ‭-Reactions:‬ ‭-Dehydration Synthesis: Builds polymers by removing water‬ ‭-Hydrolysis: Break down polymers by adding water‬ ‭Chapters 3 and 4: Cell Structure and Membranes‬ ‭1.‬ ‭Cell Theory‬ ‭-All living things are composed of cells‬ ‭-Cells are the basic unit of structure and function‬ ‭-All cells come from pre-existing cells‬ ‭2.‬ ‭Cell Organelles and Functions‬ ‭-Nucleus: Contains genetic material; controls cell activities‬ ‭-Mitochindria: Powerhouse of the cell; site of ATP production through cellular‬ ‭respiration‬ ‭-Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): Synthesizes lipids and detoxifies‬ ‭substances‬ ‭-Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): Studded with ribosomes; synthesizes‬ ‭and transport proteins‬ ‭-Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for secretion or use‬ ‭within the cell‬ ‭3.‬ ‭Properties of the Cell Membrane‬ ‭-Structure: Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins‬ ‭-Selective Permeability: Allows certain substances (e.g., small nonpolar‬ ‭molecules) to pass while blocking others‬ ‭-Transport Mechanisms:‬ ‭-Passive Transport: Diffusion, Facilitated diffusion, osmosis‬  ‭ Active Transport: Uses ATP to move substances against their gradient‬ - ‭(e.g., sodium-potassium pump)‬ ‭4.‬ ‭Diffusion and Osmosis‬ ‭-Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration‬ ‭-Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane‬ ‭-Solutions and Cell Behavior:‬ ‭-Hypertonic: Water leaves the cell; cell shrinks‬ ‭-Hypotonic: Water enters the cell; cell swells‬ ‭-Isotonic: No net movement of water; cell remains stable‬ ‭Chapter 5: Mitosis and Meiosis‬ ‭1.‬ ‭Sequence of Stages‬ ‭-Mitosis (for growth and repair; produces 2 diploid cells):‬ ‭-Prophase: Chromosomes condense, spindle fibers form‬ ‭-Metaphase: Chromosomes line up at the equatorial plate‬ ‭-Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate‬ ‭-Telophase: Nuclear membrane reforms, chromosomes de condense‬ ‭-Cytokinesis: Cytoplasm divides‬ ‭-Meiosis (for sexual reproduction; produces 4 haploid cells):‬ ‭-Meiosis I: Homologous chromosomes separate‬ ‭-Meiosis II: Sister chromatids separate‬ ‭2.‬ ‭Diploid vs. Haploid‬ ‭-Diploid (2n): Two sets of chromosomes (e.g., somatic cells)‬ ‭-Haploid (n): One set of chromosomes (e.g., gametes)‬ ‭Chapter 23: Basic Genetics‬ ‭1.‬ ‭Dominant and Recessive Concepts‬ ‭-Dominant Allele: Masks the effect of a recessive allele‬ ‭-Recessive Allele: Only expressed when two copies are present‬ ‭-Homozygous: Same alleles (e.g., AA or aa)‬ ‭-Heterozygous: Different alleles (e.g., Aa)‬ ‭2.‬ ‭Punnet Squares and Test Crosses‬ ‭-Punnett Square: Visual tool to predict genetic outcomes‬ ‭-Test Cross: Determines the genotype of an individual with a dominant‬ ‭phenotype by crossing it with a homozygous recessive‬ ‭3.‬ ‭Definitions‬ ‭-Phenotype: Observable traits‬ ‭-Genotype: Genetic makeup‬ ‭-Gamete: Reproductive cell (sperm or egg)‬ ‭Chapter 7: Aerobic Cellular Respiration Pathway‬ ‭1.‬ ‭Stages of Cellular Respiration‬  ‭-Glycolysis (in the cytoplasm):‬ ‭-Breaks down glucose into 2 pyruvate molecules‬ ‭-produces 2 ATP and 2 NADH‬ ‭-Kerbs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) (in the mitochondrial matrix):‬ ‭-Completes the breakdown of glucose‬ ‭-Produces 2 ATP, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH2 per glucose molecule‬ ‭-Electron Transport Chain (ETC) ?(in the inner mitochondrial membrane):‬ ‭-Uses NADH and FADH2 to generate a proton gradient‬ ‭-Produces approximately 32-34 ATP through oxidative phosphorylation‬ ‭Total ATP Yield: -36-38 ATP per molecule of glucose‬ ‭Main Parts of the Brain‬ ‭1.‬ ‭The Cerebrum:‬ ‭-The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher brain functions‬ ‭-Functions: Controls reading, thinking, learning, speech, emotions, and‬ ‭voluntary muscle movements (e.g., walking). It also manages vision, hearing,‬ ‭and other sensory functions‬ ‭ emispheres:‬ H ‭-Divided into left and right hemispheres‬ ‭-The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body, and the left‬ ‭hemisphere controls the right side of the body‬ ‭ obes of the cerebrum:‬ L ‭-Functions: Personality, decision-making, reasoning, and voluntary‬ ‭movement‬ ‭ arietal Lobe:‬ P ‭-Functions: Processes sensory input (touch, pressure, temperature, and‬ ‭pain), body awareness, and spatial orientation (constructing a mental map)‬ ‭ emporal Lobe:‬ T ‭-Functions: Memory, speech, and sense of smell‬ ‭ ccipital Lobe:‬ O ‭-Function: Responsible for vision‬ ‭2.‬ T ‭ he Cerebellum‬ ‭-Location: At the back of the brain, below the cerebrum‬ ‭-Functions:‬ ‭-Controls balance and coordination‬  ‭ Fine muscle control (e.g., movements required for walking)‬ - ‭-Maintains posture and equilibrium‬ ‭.‬ ‭The Brain Stem‬ 3 ‭-Location: At the base of the brain, connecting to the spinal cord‬ ‭-Components:‬ ‭-Midbrain: Controls eye movements and reflexive responses‬ ‭-Pons: Acts as a bridge for signals between the cerebrum and cerebellum;‬ ‭plays a role in breathing regulation‬ ‭-Medulla Oblongata: Regulates vital functions such as heartbeat,‬ ‭breathing, blood pressure, and swallowing‬ ‭-Functions:‬ ‭-Controls basic, life-sustaining functions‬ ‭-Manages voluntary activities such as respiration and heart rate‬