On Track 3-4 Modern Languages Textbook PDF

3-4 Els De Clercq Jan-Bart Claus TRACKING MODERNE TALEN  CONTENTS 1 Do you know what I mean? 3 Check In 4 Main Track 5 Step 1: You can’t say...

3-4 Els De Clercq Jan-Bart Claus TRACKING MODERNE TALEN  CONTENTS 1 Do you know what I mean? 3 Check In 4 Main Track 5 Step 1: You can’t say that! (understanding context) 5 Step 2: She wrote what now? (comparing text to speech) 12 Step 3: Let’s turn to sender! (analysing communication with a model) 18 Check Out: my favourite dialogue 28 Summary 30 Strategy – HOW TO understand and analyse language contextually 30 2 My passport to the world! 31 Check In 32 Main Track 33 Step 1: English makes you go around (understanding Global English) 33 Step 2: Lost languages (analysing differences between languages) 39 Check Out: presenting an endangered language 43 Summary 46 Strategy 46 – Sociolinguistics 46 2 TRACKING: CONTENTS  UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN? CHECK IN Step 1: understanding MAIN TRACK context Step 2: comparing text to speech SUMMARY Step 3: analysing communication with a model CHECK OUT: MY FAVOURITE DIALOGUE  CHECK IN HI! HOW DO YOU DO? 1 Watch the clip by LetThemTalkTV, in which people greet each other and answer the questions. WATCHING a What question is the interviewer asking? How do you do? b Why is he asking this question? He is greeting people, saying hello. c How did the first 3 people respond to the interviewer’s question? personal answer d How did the last 3 people respond to the interviewer’s question? e What is an alternative greeting you can use? f How would you greet someone in English? 2 Discuss the questions with a partner. Afterwards, share your answers with the class. SPOKEN INTERACTION a Is it easier to start a conversation online? b How would you try to start a conversation in person? c How would you start a conversation online? 3 What do you think? Are the following situations appropriate or inappropriate? reading What can I get ya, hunny? I think the situation is inappropriate because the waiter is calling an unknown customer ‘hunny. Good morning everyone, I am so happy to see you! I think the situation is appropriate, because the woman opens a work meeting with ‘good morning’. I’m out, catch you later, alligators! I think the situation is inappropriate, because the man is saying goodbye, as if he is talking to his friends. 4 UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN?  MAIN TRACK STEP 1 ⁄ You can’t say that! Understanding context 1 Take a look at the picture. What do you think happened to the girl? reading She probably received an offensive text or an inappropriate emoji. 2 Discuss the following questions. SPOKEN INTERACTION a Are you easily offended by things you see or hear online? b What offends you the most online? c What would you call someone who is (easily) offended online? d Have you ever offended someone online unintentionally? 3 Who would you send what? Complete the table. Put the words from the box in the correct column. Are you for real? – Dear Mr./Mrs./Ms. – Fam – Greetz – im going – It has come to my attention that – Kind regards – pls – u – wanna go to the movies? – would you kindly Text message to a friend Letter to your teacher – Fam – Kind regards – wanna go to the movies? – Dear Mr./Mrs./Ms. – pls – would you kindly – u – It has come to my attention that – im going – Greetz – Are you for real? Words or constructions I often use in texts: personal answer UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN? 5  4 Complete the strategy box below. HOW TO choose the appropriate register STRATEGY In English, like most languages, we use language differently based on the context in which we speak or write. In language we call this register: the degree of formality of language. We can roughly distinguish 2 categories: – We use FORMAL language in contexts where we do not know the people we are speaking or writing to, or the people we are speaking/writing to are superiors (boss, teacher…). – We use INFORMAL language in contexts where we are speaking or writing to friends or family. Keep in mind! – Formal language is generally more complex and does not use abbreviations. e.g. Bob greeted the principal: ‘Good morning, Mr. Raki.’ – Informal language is generally more colloquial and uses abbreviations. Colloquial means: everyday language. e.g. Clarissa greeted her friend: ‘What up, G?’ See p. 30 5 Watch the interview between Ali G and Professor Noam Chomsky, and answer the questions. WATCHING a What is the interview about? © GIO_LE / Shutterstock.com The interview is about why people should learn language and why language is important. b Compare Noam Chomsky’s language to Ali G’s language in the table below. Noam Chomsky’s language Ali G’s language Register: formal Register: informal because his sentences are well formed. because he is speaking to a professor as if he is talking to his friends. Example(s): Example(s): ‘Every organism has some form of – Does you think? communication.’ – My main man. – Represent West Side. 6 UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN?  c Chomsky seems a bit uneasy during the interview. Why? We can hear him hesitate because he is not used to being interviewed by someone using informal language. In this context he expected formal language. d At the start of the interview, Ali G calls Chomsky his ‘main man’. What does he mean? A main man is someone’s best friend. e At the end of the interview, Ali G says ‘start speaking proper!’. What is the irony here? Ali G does not follow his own advice. ‘Proper’ is an adjective, and he should have used the adverb, ‘properly’. f Chomsky explained the words ‘bilingual’ and ‘multilingual’ in the interview. Explain the difference between both words. ‘Bilingual’ means speaking 2 languages. ‘Multilingual’ means speaking more than 2 languages. 6 In English culture, Ali G is often called ‘a chav’. WATCHING a Look up the definition of a chav and write it down. A chav is a very negative term to describe young people from a lower social class who often wear sportswear. b What would we call a ‘chav’ in Dutch? een marginaal persoon c Do you know what ‘chav’ is in other languages? Try translating the term into different languages. personal answer d What picture depicts a chav? Use the definition you found online. X UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN? 7  7 ‘Chav’ is not the only English word used to target groups of people. a Match the words from the box to the correct pictures. Look up the meaning of each term. boomer – Gen Z – hipster – yuppie a yuppie a hipster/hipsters a boomer Gen Z b Do the terms you have looked up have a positive meaning? Explain. No, all of the terms are associated with something negative. ‘Boomer’, for example, is used to describe old, out of touch people. ‘Gen Z’ is most often used to describe young people who are antisocial due to technology. c Which Dutch words do you know that are used to describe people? peronal answer d In your opinion, why do we use words that have a more negative meaning and/or sound? speaking Did you know? In English very informal language, that is used in groups that know each other very well, is called slang or street language. This often consists of personal words that people regularly use in spoken conversation. Sometimes people even invent slang words. On the internet, the Urban Dictionary tries to define as many slang words as possible, so pay the site a visit if you get stuck! 8 UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN? 8 Evaluate the following email that John sent to his potential future employer. reading a Did he send an appropriate email? Why do you say so? John’s mail is inappropriate. He is writing to an employer. That means the context is formal, but John’s mail is very informal. For example, he uses words like ‘ur’ and ‘lit’, uses capitals in ‘OMG IT’s TERRIBLE’ and he is too informal. b Highlight the spelling mistakes in the text in yellow. To: Alida Nür Kara From: John Woodward Subject: Job? Hey Alida, We talked a couple weeks back at the Brussels Network Event. (I was the one looking for a summer internship and had a zit on my lip that could have passed for a cold sore. Lol. Phew. It was not. Your probably like, ‘uh.. What?’ Maybe that’ll help you remember, or maybe not.) I’d really like to come work for you at your IT business. You seemed like a cool person to work for; I liked ur striped pants. I’m available to start working on Monday, but I am taking my driver’s test in June. I have to study and will have to be gone for an hour and a half to take it at an easier place, cause I’m not a great driver so I’ll miss a few days. I am also going to the beach with friends for a week in July. Oh, and my grandmother has bad gas (OMG IT’S TERRIBLE) and sometimes I have to take her to the doctor. I’ve attached my resume, it’s lit. Let me know if you have a job opening for me. I can’t wait to play on some computers. If I dont respond to your email, I’m always on FB, snapchat or insta! a cold sore: a small blister on the mouth Peace out, an internship: work done by a student a resume: a document explaining your work experience John UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN? 9  9 Rewrite John’s email from your own perspective and correct the mistakes. writing a Preparation: – First highlight the things that you want to correct in John’s email (p. 9) in red. – Compare John’s mail with the email below. Highlight what Artiz did better in green. To: Alissa Ronson From: Artiz Villaseñor Subject: Application to your hospital Dear Mrs. Ronson, I was thrilled to see your advertisement for a nurse in your hospital. To date, I have five years of experience working with patients, ranging from toddlers to mature adults. I would love to put my skills to work for you. Here are my skills that meet your requirements: – Experience assessing patients’ fine motor and sensory skills – Practical knowledge of creating and implementing care plans – Effective communication skills, both oral and written – Excellent organization and multitasking skills – A proven track record of compassionate, effective care – CPR certification I would enjoy the opportunity to talk with you about this job in person. Please contact me at your convenience and let me know how I can help you. Kind regards, Artiz Villaseñor – Compare what Artiz did better than John, by filling in the table. John’s email Artiz’ email – wrong, informal greeting and – correct, formal greeting and ending (e.g. Hey, peace out.) ending (e.g. Dear, kind regards) – no clear structure – clear structure: why he is writing – inappropriate language the mail, why he is fit for the job, what he wants. – He uses correct and formal language to write to someone he does not know. 10 UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN?  b Action: write your email below. To: Alida Nür Kara From: Subject: personal answer c Reflection: check your mail using the table below. Checklist: writing a formal email Yes I think so No 1 Structure My email has a clear structure. The content is relevant and to the point. 2 Language My email uses an appropriate greeting and ending. I used formal language throughout the email. I used full forms for all my verbs. I used correct vocabulary. I used correct spelling and punctuation. Feedback UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN? 11  STEP 2 ⁄ She wrote what now? Comparing text to speech 1 Communication happens in multiple ways simultaneously. Examine the pictures and write reading down what the person could be feeling. Explain your answer. angry: crossed arms, semi-closed eyes, happy: arms in the air, open mouth, chin lowered and inward eyes slightly squinting scared: eyes wide open, hands next to sorrow: hand covering eyes crying, lips mouth, mouth slightly opened slightly pressed, drooping shoulders shyness/embarrassment: teeth showing confidence: arms flexing, open body, hand behind head, squinting eyes chin upward, open mouth 12 UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN? 2 Watch Key and Peele’s skit about texting and answer the questions. WATCHING a Why is Keegan texting Peele at the start of the clip? He wants to confirm whether their night out is still going to happen. b What does Peele reply? Peele replies that he assumed they would meet at the bar and replies, ‘whatever, I don’t care.’ c How does Keegan interpret Peele’s first text? Keegan is offended by Peele’s ‘whatever, I don’t care’, as it might mean he doesn’t care about their night out. d What misunderstanding does this first text cause? Keegan thinks Peele does not care about their night out and is very offended. But Peele is more relaxed and thinks Keegan is sending him compliments. e What do you think causes this misunderstanding? It is most likely caused by texting. They can’t read each other’s body language and can’t hear each other’s tone of voice; therefore, Peele does not know Keegan is angry, and Keegan does not know Peele is having fun. f The skit uses a couple of expressions. Find out what they mean in the context Keegan and Peele used them. ’Are we on for tonight?’ X Are our plans still happening? Do we have to work tonight? Do we have a live performance tonight? ‘You want to go right now?’ You want to have dinner now? You want to go somewhere now? X Do you want to fight? © Kathy Hutchins / Shutterstock.com ‘First round is mine.’ X I will buy the first drinks. I will win the first round. I will run the first lap. UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN? 13  HOW TO communicate in different mediums STRATEGY When we use language, we perform what we call a speech act. A speech act is something that is expressed by an individual that contains information or with which they perform an action. E.g. Melissa told us she went to the hairdresser’s yesterday. → Contains the information that Melissa went to the hairdresser’s. E.g. Keegan shouted: ‘I will hit you with this bat!’ → Keegan performs the action. Speech acts are always situated in a context and expressed through a medium, for example we can write , or we can talk to someone. The medium affects your message. For example, when we speak, we can show other people our body language , but when we write we can use emojis to show people how we feel. See p. 30 3 Discuss these questions with a partner. Then share with another group. SPOKEN INTERACTION a Have you ever had a misunderstanding via text with a friend? If so, what happened? b Does texting make us more likely to have misunderstandings? c What do you prefer: texting or speaking over the phone? d Do you have a favourite emoji? Which one? 4 Scan the text on the next page and answer the following questions. reading a Before you read the text, look up the following words and link them to their correct definition. 1 to affect A to interpret (something or someone) wrongly 2 a recipient B to move from one place or person to another 3 to misinterpret C to perform a series of actions to change something 4 to intend D to have an effect on; to make a difference to 5 to process E to have (a course of action) as one’s purpose or intention 6 to transfer F a person or thing that receives or is awarded something 1 2 3 4 5 6 D F A E C B b What kind of text is this? This is a web article. c What is the aim of the text? The writer wants to inform his audience about emojis and wants to convince his audience to use them more often (reasons to…). d Highlight the introduction, middle and conclusion of the text. Use a different colour for each part. 14 UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN?  e Look at the title of the text. What do you think of the title of this text? Think of a better alternative. The title is too long, which makes it unattractive. The author could have chosen a title just using emojis. + personal answer f Why did the author choose this title? Think of the audience he is writing for. The author is writing an informative article for an older audience (‘Four reasons to use more emojis at work’) that he does not know. This is probably why he went for a larger, more explanatory, less catchy title. 50 percent of emails and texts are misunderstood, but there’s an easy way to change that Four reasons to use more emojis at work We aren’t communicating as well as we think, and it could be affecting the way our colleagues perceive us. According to Nick Morgan, author of Can You Hear Me? How to Connect with People in a Virtual World, people think others understand their messages 90 percent of the time, but the actual statistic is only 50 percent. So how are people perceiving things the wrong way? One example: recipients of a two-word email or text such as ‘nice job’ or ‘great work’ interpret the message as sarcastic 60 percent of the time, Morgan writes. Why do people misinterpret so frequently? Humans have a tendency to assume the worst when the intent of communication isn’t clear. This negative bias once alerted the brain of cavemen and cavewomen of potential dangers, like bears or alligators, and is still very active in the minds of today’s modern workers. How do we overcome negative biases hijacking the intended meanings of our communications and ensure our messages aren’t misunderstood half the time? Use emojis. Here are four reasons why. 1 Emoji acceptance is growing An early indicator of how emojis had infiltrated our language was in 2015 when the Oxford Dictionaries’ ‘Word of the Year’ wasn’t a word but actually the ‘face with tears of joy’ emoji. Sixty-one percent of emoji users use emojis at work. Twenty-six million custom emojis have been created since the ‘Add Custom Emoji’ feature was introduced to smartphones and emoji use is basically everywhere for the 13 million users of Microsoft’s Teams according to the Wall Street Journal. 2 Emojis help clarify emotional intent Research indicates that the same part of the brain that processes human faces also processes emojis. When an emoji shows a human emotion, it can be transferred in a text. Emojis thus help to add emotion to text and help recipients interpret the tone of digital messages. For example, an ‘Ok’ text from someone can be interpreted many different ways: acceptance, apathy, submission or passive aggressiveness, among them. But an ‘Ok’ with a smiling face is easily interpreted as positive acceptance. Adding an emoji makes the message clear. UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN? 15  3 Emojis enhance relationships The proper use of emojis helps people form relationships and understand one another, according to a recent review that took into account 11 databases and 50 studies on the use and impact of emojis in communication. 81 percent of emoji users believe that people who use emojis are friendlier and more approachable. In addition, 94 percent of emoji users said the ‘ability to communicate across language barriers’ was the greatest benefit of using emojis. 4 Emojis can close the generational gap Although using emojis at work is becoming more commonplace, many of the mixed views of emojis can be explained largely by age. In general, the emerging generations (millennials and Gen Z) place more value on using emojis, while established generations (Gen X and baby boomers) tend to view emojis as unprofessional and counterproductive. Emojis are a great way to prevent your texts from being misinterpreted. So, whether you like them or not, they are here to stay. But before adding 10 emojis to your texts, do pay attention to the meaning of each! commonplace: not unusual, ordinary Adapted from: www.entrepreneur.com an intent: a purpose; the goal of something or someone to perceive: to look at someone; to have an opinion about something 5 Now read the text more closely and answer the questions. reading a What is the main idea of this text? The text is about texting and how emojis are becoming popular. It turns out that emojis also help us to better understand texts. b Why do we so easily misinterpret text messages? Because the intent of the message is often unclear when we can’t read people’s emotions. The negative bias makes us assume people always intend the worst. c Explain what a ‘negative bias’ is by using the context. A bias means having a prejudice (an opinion before actually figuring something out). A negative bias means automatically assuming something is bad, before knowing whether it is actually bad. 16 UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN?  d Summarize the text by adding information to the following table. Why do we use emojis? Emoji acceptance is growing. Emojis enhance relationships. – Indicator of popularity: – Emojis help people form relationships the word of the year was an emoji. and understand each other. – For example: – For example: 61% use emojis at work. 81% of emoji users believe that other 26 million emojis have already been emoji users are more friendly and created. approachable. Emojis help to clarify emotional intent. Emojis can close the generation gap. – Emojis add emotion to text, making it – 1: Millennials and Gen Z value emojis. easier to interpret. – 2: Gen X and babyboomers tend to – For example: view emojis as unprofessional. an OK text can have multiple meanings; adding an emoji makes it clear. e The writer warns that some emojis can be misunderstood or used wrongly. Can you think of any? Explain the meaning of these emojis. personal answer 6 In his article Ryan Jenkins wrote about the possibility of creating your own emoji. SPOKEN INTERACTION a Preparation: think about the following questions. – What meaning will your emoji express? – How do you want your emoji to show that meaning? – In what contexts would you want your emoji to be used? b Action: – Draw your emoji in the box below. This can be a completely new image, or a combination of existing emojis. – Present your emoji to a few classmates: explain what it means and how it should be used. – List the top 3 emojis presented to you. UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN? 17  c Reflection: fill in the checklist below. Checklist: my emoji Yes I think so No 1 Content I explained what my emoji means. I explained in what context I would use it. I argued why my emoji fits that specific context. 2 Language I paid attention to my pronunciation. I spoke clearly and fluently. Feedback STEP 3 ⁄ Let’s turn to sender! Analysing communication with a model 1 ⁄ How communication works 1 Communication is very tricky. Follow the instructions to find out why. SPOKEN INTERACTION a Your teacher will give you a sentence to start with. b Whisper the sentence to the next person in line. That person continues onto another person. Continue until the sentence arrives at the last person. c This person says the sentence they received out loud. Is it still the original sentence? d What has happened along the way? 2 Listen to the following song. listening a Complete the lyrics. Return to sender - Elvis Presley Return to sender [x2] So then I dropped it in the mailbox I gave a letter to the postman And sent it special D He put it in his sack Bright and early next morning Bright and early next morning It came right back to me He brought my letter back Return to sender, address unknown [Refrain] Return to sender, address No such person, no such zone unknown This time I’m gonna take it myself and put No such number, no such zone it right in her hand We had a quarrel, a lover’s spat And if it comes back the very next day I write I’m sorry, but my letter keeps then I’ll understand coming back [Refrain] Return to sender [x3] 18 UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN?  b Answer the questions about the song. – What is Presley’s song about? It is about rejection. He is trying to write a letter to the girl he loves, but she keeps sending it back unopened. – What will he understand after trying to send the letter for the third time? That she no longer wants to see him anymore. – What are ‘a lover’s spat’ and ‘special D’? A lover’s spat is slang for a small quarrel between lovers. Special D is slang for ‘special delivery’, which means his letter will arrive faster. c Analyse the communicative situation by completing the graphic organizer. Use the words from the box. channel – decoding – encoding – message – noise – receiver – sender The letter = channel Writing The contents of Reading Elvis Presley = His girlfriend = the letter = his letter = the letter = sender receiver encoding message decoding The postman, possible delays, ignoring the letter... = noise d Use the chart to explain the title of the song ‘Return to sender’. The letter is always sent back to Elvis Presley. In the situation he is the sender. The receiver, his girlfriend, refuses to accept and read the letter. The letter is thus always sent back to the sender: return to sender. UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN? 19  e The song is itself also a form of communication. Explain the sender, receiver, message and channel of Elvis’ song. The sender = Elvis the receiver = us, the audience the message = about relationships and its issues the channel = music, a song 3 Complete the strategy box below. HOW TO use communication models STRATEGY We can analyse communication by using communication models. Those models allow us to examine a speech act and its speakers. A communication model generally uses the following categories: – Sender : person who speaks or sends a message. – Receiver: person who hears or reads the message. – Message : what is transmitted between speaker and listener. – Channel : the medium the speaker uses to transmit his/her message. – Coding: formulating the message (writing, using specific sounds…). – Decoding: understanding the message (reading, combining sounds to words…). – Noise : interference that can cause the message to be more difficult to understand (background noise, someone not being fluent in a language…). See p. 30 4 Model the communicative situation of the next example. e.g. Rezaeh called Eva to say he would be late, but she didn’t understand him that well, as his connection was not good. Rezaeh is the sender, and he is speaking on the phone (channel + coding) to Eva (receiver) who listens to Rezaeh (decoding). He tells her that he will be later (message), but his message is hard to understand. His connection is bad (noise). 5 Discuss the following questions before watching the clip. a What are possible causes for misunderstandings? b How would you try to prevent miscommunication? c What are some important rules when having a conversation? d Do you like small talk when meeting new people? Why (not)? 6 Models can help us understand miscommunication. Watch the clip and answer the questions. WATCHING a Do you recognize yourself in a situation at the start of the clip? Which one and why? personal answer 20 UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN?  b Are the following statements true or false? Correct them if they are false. Statement True False 1 Researching communication has only begun very recently. That is why we do not know a lot about communication. X Research has been going on for decades and we already know quite a bit! 2 The transactional model sees communication as a transaction in which all speakers actually contribute to communication. X 3 In the transactional model communication is seen as a rock that is thrown around between speakers. It always stays the same. X It is seen as a ball of clay that speakers keep changing based on their background. 4 When communicating only your mouth is important, as it is the only thing used to send a message. X When communicating we should also look with our eyes, listen with our ears and interpret with our gut. It is more than just words. c Explain the transmission model. It sees communication as a message moving from one person to another. Like throwing a ball and then moving away. d Why is that model not good enough to explain communication? It is too simplistic: it doesn’t cover all of the challenges of communication. e What influences how we interpret a message? Our relationship with people, other stimuli, and perceptual filters. These filters are our opinions and our background. f Look at the following situations. Give a tip based on the clip to improve the communication. The girl is not listening actively and looks bored. Instead, she should try to listen more actively and pay more attention. The couple seems to be in the middle of an argument and is not talking to each other. Instead, they should tell each other how they see the issue and try to understand each other. UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN? 21  g During the clip the speaker uses the words ‘connotation’ and ‘semantics’. Find the correct definition based on the context of the clip or by looking up the words. – Connotation The literal meaning of a word. X Another meaning or feeling a word can give, in addition to its literal meaning. Knowing the meaning of a message without having to think about it. – Semantics X The science that tries to understand the meaning of words. A disorder in which someone always misunderstands communication. The science that examines the origin of words. Did you know? Every word has a connotation and denotation. Denotation means the literal meaning of the word as we can find it in dictionaries or encyclopaedias. e.g. the word ‘blue’: – denotation: a colour – connotation: a feeling, like depressed or sad 2 ⁄ Analysing communicative situations 1 Describe the following situations using the terms listed. Certain pictures are accompanied by reading a sentence to help you on your way. – sender, receiver, message – ‘There you go, miss. Enjoy!’ 1 The baker (sender) says: ‘There you go, miss. Enjoy!’ (message) to the customer (receiver). 2 – receiver, decoding, channel The soldier (receiver) is reading (decoding) a letter (channel) from her family. – noise, coding, sender – ‘You have beautiful eyes!’ 3 The woman (sender) is communicating: ‘You have beautiful eyes!’ with her body language, saying it (coding), while there is a lot of chatter in the pub (noise). 22 UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN?  – channel, receiver, coding Proxipie 4G 1:42 PM 75% Someone has typed (coding) a text message < Messages Nadine Details I’m sorry, Nadine, but I (channel) to their boss Nadine (receiver) explaining can’t come in today. he can’t come in tonight. Uh, that’s too bad, what’s up? I have fallen ill. I might have to get tested. I understand. I will find a replacement for tonight. Hope you get well soon. :) 2 Watch a clip from the Billy Elliot movie. Afterwards answer the questions. WATCHING a What is Billy Elliot about? Write some of your ideas below. personal answer © catwalker / Shutterstock.com b The clip makes a clear division between boys and girls. Describe each group in the boxes below. Boys Girls – tough – dressed up in ballet outfits – They do boxing. – They have to dance. – boyish clothing, darker clothing – They have to look pretty. – Coach talks in a dialect. – No girls are allowed to join boxing – Boys have to be brave. lessons. c At the end of the clip the coach shouts: ‘He’s like a fanny in a fit!’ Explain this expression and also look up what 'fanny' and 'fit' mean. The expression refers to people who seem very mad and are about to go mad. A fanny here is slang for 'a woman', and a fit means being angry. d Why does the coach use this expression? He thinks Elliot is crazy by behaving like a girl, as he ‘dances’ around his sparring partner. He wants to insult Elliot by calling him a fanny. UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN? 23  3 Read the blurb from the book Billy Elliot and answer the questions. reading a What do you learn about Billy? Complete the character card. Billy Elliot Born and raised in Yorkshire. Lives with his father , who wants him to learn to box, like he learned from this father. But instead, Billy wants to dance and learn ballet. b What does this blurb want you to do as a reader? It is trying to convince you to buy and read the book. It literally says: ‘Try it! Read page 30.’ c Would you buy this book after reading the blurb? Why (not)? 4 Read the review of the book and answer the questions. reading a Is this review positive or negative of the book? Why do you say so? It is a positive review. rob millrs writes it is the best movie of 2000. b The review mentions the term ‘gender expression’. Explain what it means based on what you already know, or by looking up the term. It means how a person chooses to express their gender. Instead of boys only doing boy things and girls only doing girl things, gender expression shows that each person can choose what they want to do. c How does the book explore gender expression? Use your findings or use the review. For example: Billy chooses to do ballet as a boy, which does not fit the stereotype. Ballet is seen as a girl’s sport instead of a boy’s sport. The book argues that everyone is free to express themselves. To say that Billy Elliot is the best movie of 2000 is to damn it with faint praise. Billy must fight for his choice, fight against his own family. There are two stereotypes against him. First one is that ballet is for girls, not for boys (lads do football... or boxing... or wrestling). And second sounds even worse: all male ballet dancers are gays. In short, the book and the movie are an inspiring story exploring gender expression! By robmillrs Source: combined from reviews on imdb.com 24 UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN? 5 Read the following extract from the Billy Elliot novel. Afterwards, answer the questions. reading a Who is Tony? We can assume Tony is Billy’s brother, but this part does not give clear evidence. b Who is the person we are following in this part? We are following Billy’s dad, Jackie. We know this, because Billy calls this person ‘dad’ in the last paragraph. c 'The text shows the difficulty of Billy's gender expression'. Is this statement true or false? Support your argument with evidence from the text. The statement is correct. In the text we see Billy practising a ballet move (‘a spin’), but he tries to hide it by calling it a boxing move. Symbolically, he hurts himself whilst practising this spin: physical pain which shows the psychological pain of hiding himself. d The speaker in this text calls Billy ‘a bloody rabbit’. What does this show? It shows that Billy’s family, in this case his brother and his father, do not understand Billy. They do not share Billy’s passion, making it hard for them to understand Billy’s passion for dancing. At the end of the text the dad even thinks ‘I don’t know what to make of him’. e Look at the front page of the book. Link the image to the excerpt you have just read. On the front page we see a picture of Billy. He appears to be dancing with a boxing glove on. We see the same thing in the text above: Billy practising for ballet with a glove on. 1 Now it was spinning round in circles. He denied it at first, but I kept catching him at it. In the kitchen, in the hall, in the yard, in his bedroom. All the bloody time. Staring into space like an idiot, holding out his arms and then hurling himself round in a bloody great spin and falling over, half the time. I sent him out to 5 make tea once, and when he didn’t come back for ages, I went to have a look. There he was, staring away, just about to go off. UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN? 25  ‘Billy,’ I said, just as he let himself off, and he went spinning round, trying to look over his shoulder at the same time, and he went crashing into the table and sent the lot flying – milk everywhere, sugar upside down, mugs broken. 10 Tony came rushing in from the hall. ‘What are you doing, man?’ ‘I’m just practising a spin. It’s a boxing move,’ he said. ‘It’s not like any boxing move I’ve ever seen,’ I told him. Boxing move! It was another of his stupid habits. ‘Now don’t start doing that all the time,’ I warned him. ‘You’ll wreck the bloody house doing that.’ 15 ‘Aye, and who’s going to pay for those mugs and all? You’ve got no bloody sense,’ goes Tony. ‘All right, Dad, all right.’ But of course he didn’t stop. He can’t help himself once he gets going. He’s like a bloody rabbit with the eyes too big or something. At least he started doing it outside after that. He was pretending to do boxing practice, but was he heck. I crept out into the yard to have a look and there he was, same old thing. Arms curved out to one side, then he flung ’em 20 round and went hurtling round in a circle. The weird thing was the way he was staring into space. And the gloves – are, he had the gloves on. He looked like a bloody madman. He scares me sometimes, our Billy. I don’t know what to make of him. Source: Melvin Burgess, Billy Elliot 6 Read the ensuing conversation between Jackie, Billy’s father, and Billy, and analyse the reading communication between Billy and his dad by completing the graphic organizer. Channel: speech Coding: speaking Decoding: listening Sender: Message: Receiver: Jackie Elliot Don’t dance ballet. Billy Noise: difference in interests 26 UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN?  1 I went out and had a word with him. ‘What are you doing, son? You look like you’re having a fit or something.’ ‘I’m practising, Dad.’ ‘No, you’re not practising. Practising what? Looking like a fanny? Don’t you care what people 5 think of you?’ ‘It’s just a bloody spin.’ ‘Well, don’t do it. Not out here where people can see.’ ‘But you told me not to do it in the house!’ ‘Just don’t do it, that’s all. OK?’ 10 I didn’t see it so much after that, but I knew he was still at it. I could hear him falling about all over. Banging on the landing, crashing about in the kitchen. I was forever yelling, ‘stop bloody banging!’ He fell in the bath doing it one time. It was his Sunday-night bath, there was this almighty splash and when I went up, there he was, staring at himself in the mirror, fully dressed, soaking wet, arms out ready to have another go. 15 ‘You’re doing that again!’ I told him. ‘I fell in the bath, that’s all,’ he said. I didn’t bother saying any more. I just rolled my eyes and left him to it. Source: Melvin Burgess, Billy Elliot 7 Answer the questions about the text. reading a Where does the miscommunication between Billy and his father happen? Add a red cross to the graphic organizer to symbolize miscommunication. Billy’s father is trying to get across to his son that he shouldn’t be doing ballet. In the previous text Billy had to take it outside, now his father tells him he can’t practise at all. The miscommunication happens at the level of noise. Billy and his father have different passions, so they have a hard time understanding each other. b In their conversation, Billy’s father is hiding an emotion. How does he feel? Use an example from the text. Billy’s father is ashamed of his son. For example, he says: ‘Don’t you care what people think of you?’ and, ‘Not out here where people can see.’ c At the end, Jackie simply rolls his eyes and leaves. What does this ending show? He knows Billy is still dancing, while Billy denies he is dancing. It shows that Jackie and Billy cannot talk about ballet. Billy tries to express himself, but his father cannot understand. UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN? 27  CHECK OUT MY FAVOURITE DIALOGUE ORIENTATION Remember those lines? Most of us have a quote from a movie or a book we remember. In this exercise you will analyse that speech act and present it to your class. PREPARATION 1 Find a dialogue from a film, book, comic book or series that you like. 2 What makes it special or good for you? The mind map ‘My favourite dialogue’ below has some prompts you can work with. Be sure to add your own! What dialogue do I My want to What do I favourite analyse? want to show dialogue with my model? Why did I choose this piece of dialogue? ACTION 3 Analyse the communicative situation using a graphic organizer similar to the one on pages 19 and 26. Make sure you discuss each element: sender, receiver, message, coding, decoding, channel, and noise (see page 20 or page 30 for a detailed explanation of each term). If one or more aspects are missing, add them to your argument! 4 Present your findings to the class. Show your dialogue and explain the communicative speaking situation. Use the model you made to explain why you chose that dialogue. 5 Think about the structure of your presentation. Use an introduction, middle and conclusion. 28 UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN? REFLECTION 6 Reflect on your task by filling in the checklist. Checklist: my favourite dialogue Yes I think so No 1 Content and structure I explained why I chose my dialogue. I analysed the dialogue with my model, showing the meaning behind it. My presentation had a clear introduction, middle and conclusion. 2 Language I used correct grammar. I used correct vocabulary. I paid attention to my pronunciation. I spoke clearly and fluently. Feedback UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN? 29  SUMMARY HOW TO understand and analyse language contextually STRATEGY (Using a language model) How do you do? How do you do? USE Channel Sender Coding Message Decoding Reciever Channel FORM – Sender: person who speaks or sends a message. – Receiver: person who hears or reads the message. – Message: what is transmitted between sender and receiver. – Channel: the medium the speaker uses to transmit their message. – Coding: formulating the message (writing, using specific sounds, etc.). – Decoding: understanding the message (reading, combining sounds to words, etc.). – Noise: interference that can cause the message to be misunderstood (background noise, someone not being fluent in a language, etc.). Keep in mind! – A speech act can pass through different mediums (channels), which will change the coding of the message (emoticons, slang, etc.). – Mistaking a formal or an informal context can cause noise during communication. 30 UNIT 1: DO YOU KNOW WHAT I MEAN?  UNIT 2: MY PASSPORT TO THE WORLD! CHECK IN Step 1: understanding MAIN TRACK Global English Step 2: analysing differences between languages SUMMARY CHECK OUT: PRESENTING AN ENDANGERED LANGUAGE  CHECK IN WHERE TO? Research blitz! English is spoken in many places around the world. Can you find as many as reading possible? Circle those countries! SPOKEN INTERACTION a Write down the names of the countries you found during your search. Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Malta, Trinidad and Tobago b What other information did you find about English in the world? Share those facts with the class. personal answer c How did English become so widespread in your opinion? Brainstorm with the class. 32 UNIT 2: MY PASSPORT TO THE WORLD!  MAIN TRACK STEP 1 ⁄ English makes you go around Understanding Global English 1 Listen to the song and answer the questions. listening a What could the song be about? SPOKEN INTERACTION b Where is the singer from? c How do you know? d Look at the chorus of the song. Translate it to more standard English. Use the link on diddit if necessary. Blessings all pon mi life and, Blessings for my life and, Me Thank God fi di journey, I thank God for the journey, Di earnings a just fi di plus What I earned is a plus Gratitude is a must I must be grateful Me see Blessings fall by mi right hand I see fortune at my right hand Toast to di friends weh tek off heavy load A toast to the friends who bring me relief One time did sit down ina class We used to sit in class and we bored and be bored together Den Oli seh do road and mi gwaan wid di road. Then Oli told me to hit the road and I went on with the road. e Find 3 differences between the English used by the singer and the English you know. – The singer uses a different personal pronoun in her song (mi/me instead of I). – The singer pronounces the definite article ‘the’ differently: di (also different spelling). – There are different verb contractions: gwaan = go on or went on. Did you know? In Jamaica people speak a language called Jamaican Patois or Patwah. This is a form of English mixed with West-African influences that native speakers learned on the island. In the 17th century this language was gradually developed through language contact. African slaves adopted the English spoken by their slaveholders, and changed specific aspects of the English language, like personal pronouns, verb contractions, and articles. UNIT 2: MY PASSPORT TO THE WORLD! 33  2 Brainstorm about language contact, based on what you learned about Jamaican from Koffee’s SPOKEN INTERACTION song. Use a separate piece of paper to make a mind map. Then share with the class. Can you add other elements to your mind map? 3 The history of the English language is one of language contact. Watch the clip and answer the WATCHING questions. a Complete the fact file. FACT FILE English is called English, because it comes from the island we now know as England. First time Before the Saxons, the Romans, the Vikings and the Normans of language colonized parts of England. contact They spoke their own languages and mixed them with English. Second time The Saxons, Angles and Jutes arrived and drove away of language the Celts. contact Those original inhabitants of Great Britain spoke Celtic, Gaelic and Cornish. English as English only became a ‘proper’ language in the 14th century. a proper It became the language of parliament and the court. language English began The most important driver was colonialism. to be English pushed out local languages and indigenous forms spread. developed. Sometimes English exists alongside another language. In the 20th English continued to spread through culture, technology, politics and the media, century so that today it is a truly global language. b Explain what a global language is, based on what you learn from the clip. A global language is a language that is spoken around the world, like English today. 4 Read the article about Global English and answer the questions. reading Global reading a Add a title and subtitles to the text. What can help you decide on a title or subtitle? The paragraphs under the title or subtitles determine what title to choose. b What questions does the text try to answer? Why is English so popular? And why has it become a global language? 34 UNIT 2: MY PASSPORT TO THE WORLD!  c What type of text is this? Why do you say so? The questions are research questions, which makes this a research article. The text follows a research structure: it first raises questions, which it then seeks to answer. d What is the goal of the text? It aims to inform its audience about English as a global language. e Highlight the introduction, the middle and the conclusion. 1 English: the world’s lingua franca People often talk about English as a global language or lingua franca. With more than 350 million people around the world speaking English as a first language and more than 430 million speaking it as a second language, there are English speakers in most countries 5 around the world. Why is English so popular, though? And why has it become a global language? The international language People often call English the international language of business, and it’s increasingly true as international trade expands every year, bringing new countries into contact. Many of the 10 best master’s programs are taught in English, so speaking it well can put you in a position to get the best training and credentials. Most multinational companies require a certain degree of English proficiency from potential employees, so in order to get a position with a top company more and more people learn English. If your ambitions lie in science or medicine, you can’t neglect English either. Much of the 15 technical terminology is based on English words, and if you want to learn about the latest developments and discoveries from around the world, you’ll read about them in journals and research reports published in English. No matter whether the scientists who wrote them are from China or Norway. And, of course, with good conversational English, you’ll be able to network and make important contacts at conferences and seminars. 20 A writing career English also opens doors in the academic world. Of course, if the best program in your field is in an English-speaking country, English will give you the opportunity to study with the top scholars. Western universities are attracting more and more visiting scholars, students and professors from all around the world, and their common working language is English. 25 As well as studying and teaching, attending international conferences and publishing in foreign journals are some of the key steps to success in academia. In order to speak at these conferences or publish in these journals, excellent English is essential. Journalists and writers around the world are finding a good command of English to be an increasingly useful skill. Even if you’re writing your articles and doing interviews in your 30 own language, with good English you can get background material from international wire services, and papers and magazines from around the world. You can interview foreign businessmen, diplomats and maybe even get sent to cover overseas stories. Good English skills mean that you are not reliant on translators and can work faster and more accurately with English information sources. UNIT 2: MY PASSPORT TO THE WORLD! 35  35 A career in travel If you want a career in travel, English is absolutely essential. As the international language of aviation, pilots and cabin crew all need to speak English. Even if you’re not up in the air, speaking English accurately will ensure you are able to communicate with clients and suppliers all over the world. 40 So, what’s stopping you from learning this global language? With all the English resources available on the internet and so many other English speakers around the world to practise with, there’s never been a better time to start learning English. Pick up a book, learn a few words, or even start a course today and take your first steps towards becoming one of nearly 800 million English speakers in the world. Source: www.Englishlive.ef.com Intensive reading f What is the text about? The text is about the English language and how it can be useful to learn English because it is used as an international language in multiple sectors. g Explain the words ‘lingua franca’ and use an example. A lingua franca is an international language that is spoken by people who have different native languages. English, for example, has more than 430 million speakers of English as a second language. h What are 3 advantages of learning English, according to the text? – Studying and teaching: attend conferences or publish internationally. You can also read more sources. – Career: if you can speak English, you can get jobs at bigger companies. – Specific jobs: if you want to have a job in aviation, English is essential. i Are the following statements true or false? Correct if they are false. Statement True False 1 English has more than 500 million native speakers. English has more than 350 million native speakers. X 2 A lot of science or medicine terminology is in English these days. X 36 UNIT 2: MY PASSPORT TO THE WORLD!  Statement True False 3 You do not need English for interviews if you do them in your own language. X You can use English to have broader access to background information. j What is the conclusion of the text? The author mentions that there is no reason not to learn English and that there is plenty of material available. k Does this match the structure of the text? Not really. It does not offer a clear answer to the questions the author raised at the start of the text. The research structure STRATEGY Certain texts try to find and provide information on a specific topic. They show this in their structure. – Research texts always start from a specific question or questions that usually start with a wh-word. These questions are generally raised in the introduction, and they show what the author wants to investigate: what do I want to learn? – The text seeks to answer those questions in the paragraphs that follow the introduction. The middle part, therefore, mainly provides information. – In the conclusion the author summarizes the important bits of information and gives a clear answer to the question(s) in the introduction. See p. 46 UNIT 2: MY PASSPORT TO THE WORLD! 37  5 Global English has its advantages and its disadvantages: write a research question. writing a Preparation: check the strategy box on the previous page and reread the introduction of the previous article to make sure you understand the research question. Find more information online on the advantages and disadvantages of Global English and/or global languages. b Action: summarize the information you already have in the table below. Then write what you would still like to find out in your research question. Share your research question with a classmate. 1 What I already know or found out: personal answer 2 My research question: c Reflection: check your research question by filling in the checklist below. In addition, evaluate your classmate’s research question. Checklist: my research question Yes I think so No 1 Content I wrote a question that makes it clear what I want to find out. 2 Language I used correct grammar. I used correct vocabulary. I used correct spelling and punctuation. Feedback 38 UNIT 2: MY PASSPORT TO THE WORLD!  STEP 2 ⁄ Lost languages Analysing differences between languages 1 Discuss the following questions in class. SPOKEN INTERACTION a How many languages are there in the world? Make a guess! b In how many languages can you say hello? c Do you speak a dialect at home? If so, which one? d What dialects do you know? 2 Watch the clip by GreatBigStory and answer the questions. WATCHING a Before you watch, look up what the following words mean: – a borough: an urban area – to dispatch: to send of b Roughly how many languages are spoken on earth? 2000 3500 6000 X 7000 8500 c What is WikiTongues? A non-profit organization that wants to promote and pass on endangered languages to the next generation. d Why are Daniel and his project based in New York? It is linguistically the most diverse city in the world with as many as 800 languages spoken in each borough. This makes it easier to preserve languages. e What is Daniel’s method for recording endangered languages? He records oral histories. People have to talk about themselves and their culture in their language. He records everything and archives it. f Complete the following table, based on the clip. Term Description Endangered language A language spoken by very few and a declining number of native speakers. The language is at risk of dying. Extinct language A language that no longer has any native speakers. UNIT 2: MY PASSPORT TO THE WORLD! 39  Did you know? Belgium has 7 endangered languages, one of which is West Flemish, alongside Walloon and Picard, 2 dialects spoken in the French part of Belgium. Global reading 3 Read the following text and answer the questions. reading a What kind of text is this? This is an internet article, providing tips on how to preserve and protect an endangered language. b What is the aim of the text? It’s a prescriptive text that offers advice on preserving an endangered language. c In his text, the author used linking words to structure the text. Highlight 3 linking words in the text. Keeping endangered languages alive: a guide by Kathrin Ackerman 1 While I have previously discussed the importance of keeping endangered languages alive, I will provide you with certain ways that you can help keep endangered languages alive in our modern world. To begin, I will return to my previous example of Quechua, the indigenous language of the Andes Mountains. One of the biggest problems with Quechua is that it is mainly a spoken language, which 5 means that there is not much written material that has been preserved in Quechua. Because of this serious problem, the language of Quechua is rapidly disappearing. However, many volunteers have gone into the Andes and have helped translate material such as the Bible and other important documents into Quechua in order to keep the indigenous language recorded, and thus alive. One other way to keep endangered languages alive is to pass them on to younger generations, 10 especially if you yourself speak them. For example, although Latin is already considered a ‘dead’ language, it is still taught in classes worldwide to this day, to further our understanding of modern languages. Using endangered languages on the internet can also help preserve them. Google allows its users to select from 36 languages, with 28 of those being European in origin. In order for indigenous languages 15 to be preserved, it is important to use them on modern technology such as the internet so they, too, can evolve along with our evolving world. Hopefully now that we’ve established the importance of saving endangered languages and have taught you a few ways to use them, you can do YOUR part in preserving history and culture! Source: https://translationexcellence.com Did you know? Linking words allow us to structure a text. The content of a paragraph usually determines which linking words we use. e.g. however, to begin with, first, second, third, then, therefore… 40 UNIT 2: MY PASSPORT TO THE WORLD!  Intensive reading 4 Read the text in more detail. Find 3 tips from Ackerman’s article on how to preserve an reading endangered language and give an example for each. Tip Example 1 documentation Volunteers have kept the language Quechua alive by translating the bible. 2 pass them on to younger Latin is a dead language but is kept alive generations as it is being taught in classes worldwide. 3 use endangered languages on the Google allows users to select from internet multiple, indigenous languages. 5 Write an email to a government representative. Advise this person how to keep endangered written INTERACTION languages alive. a Preparation: think of 3 tips to add to your email. b Action: write your email below. Pay attention to the structure (e.g. greeting and ending formula, the use of paragraphs, etc.). To: From: Subject: personal answer UNIT 2: MY PASSPORT TO THE WORLD! 41  c Reflection: check your email by filling in the checklist below. Checklist: writing an email Yes I think so No 1 Content and structure I formatted my email correctly: I used paragraphs. I started and ended the email correctly. I gave advice on saving endangered languages. 2 Language I used correct grammar. I used correct vocabulary. I wrote in a formal register. I used correct spelling and punctuation. Feedback 42 UNIT 2: MY PASSPORT TO THE WORLD!  CHECK OUT PRESENTING AN ENDANGERED LANGUAGE ORIENTATION You are going to present an endangered language to your class. These languages are catalogued by UNESCO. Use the link on diddit to find a language that is officially in danger. Present that endangered language to class. PREPARATION 1 Find the information you need online. 2 Fill in the table to prepare your presentation. My presentation of an endangered language I am going to talk about this language: personal answer I chose this language, because It is mainly spoken in (region, country…): It approximately has this number of speakers: I would try to save this language by (give at least 2 ways of how you would do this): UNIT 2: MY PASSPORT TO THE WORLD! 43  3 Prepare your presentation by completing the graphic organizer. Introduction How will I start my presentation? Middle What information do I definitely want to give in my presentation? How do I want to order that information? Conclusion What do I want my audience to remember? 4 Practise your presentation with a classmate. Listen to their feedback. Make any changes if SPOKEN INTERACTION necessary. 44 UNIT 2: MY PASSPORT TO THE WORLD! ACTION 5 Present your findings. Make sure your presentation is between 2 and 3 minutes long. speaking 6 Use the following peer evaluation checklist to give your classmates tips on their presentation. Peer evaluation: presenting an endangered language Yes I think so No 1 Content My classmate shared all the necessary information. The presentation kept me interested. I learned something new. 2 Structure The presentation had a good structure (beginning, middle, end). The presentation was 2 to 3 minutes long. 3 Language The presenter was fluent (not too slow or too fast). The presenter used correct grammar. The presenter used correct vocabulary. The presenter paid attention to their pronunciation. What I liked best about this presentation (+ give a reason): REFLECTION 7 Reflect on your own presentation using the table below. Checklist: preserving an endangered language Yes I think so No 1 Content and structure I found and presented basic information about the chosen language: name of language, where it is spoken, how I would save it. My presentation had a good structure: introduction, middle and conclusion. My presentation was 2 to 3 minutes long. 2 Language I used correct grammar. I used varied vocabulary. I spoke fluently. I paid attention to my pronunciation. Feedback UNIT 2: MY PASSPORT TO THE WORLD! 45  SUMMARY SOCIOLINGUISTICS STRATEGY Language contact Language contact: occurs when 2 or more languages interact and influence each other, like Jamaican and English. This generally happens between a strong majority language (English) and a weaker minority language (for example Jamaican). Language vitality Language vitality: just like us, languages are alive. Some languages, like English, are present around the world and are thus healthy. Other languages are instead endangered or extinct. This is always measured by the number of native speakers. In the case of endangered languages, the number of native speakers is decreasing. In the case of extinct languages, there are no native speakers left. Research structure Texts can draw upon different structures. One such structure we have seen in this unit is the research structure. A text that is built around this structure generally starts from a research question, which indicates what the writer wants to learn. It also shows the reader what they are supposed to learn from a text. The introduction mentions the research questions, after which the middle presents the information to answer the question(s). This information is ordered logically, so that the paragraphs can build upon each other. A text can use linking words to add structure. The conclusion of the text then serves to provide a clear answer to the question(s) posed at the start. 46 UNIT 2: MY PASSPORT TO THE WORLD!