Sociological Theories of Crime PDF

THEORIES IN CRIME CAUSATION JEFFREY E. OMALLAO CHAPTER III Sociological Theory Social Learning Theories (SLT): Tarde and Akers Social Learning Theories (SLT) Social Learning Theory is a leadin...

THEORIES IN CRIME CAUSATION JEFFREY E. OMALLAO CHAPTER III Sociological Theory Social Learning Theories (SLT): Tarde and Akers Social Learning Theories (SLT) Social Learning Theory is a leading explanation of criminal behavior which maintains that crime is learned and more likely to occur when individuals differentially associate with people who are criminally involved, experience greater exposure to delinquent models, anticipate or receive more rewards and fewer punishments for crime, and have a greater number of definitions favorable to crime. The Social Learning Theory says that people learn from the people around them. So, if Kenneth hangs out with a bunch of guys who break the law, he is likely to learn from them that it's okay to break the law. Just as the name suggests, the social learning theory is about how we learn our behaviors from those around us. Social learning theories (Gabriel Tarde) Tarde, a 19th-century French sociologist, proposed that imitation is a fundamental mechanism through which people adopt behaviors, ideas, and innovations. Tarde believed that much of human behavior is learned through imitation. Tarde emphasized that imitation can spread rapidly in society, similar to how a contagion spreads, which can explain the adoption of both positive and negative behaviors. 1|P age  THEORIES IN CRIME CAUSATION JEFFREY E. OMALLAO Social Learning Theory (Ronald Louis Akers) Akers extended Edwin Sutherland’s differential association theory, proposing that people learn criminal behavior through interaction with others, particularly within close social groups. Differential Association is Individuals learn behaviors, norms, and values by associating with others who engage in that behavior. Comparison Akers’ social learning theory is more focused on direct interactions with others (family, peers) and includes a broader range of mechanisms such as reinforcement and the development of attitudes (definitions). Tarde’s theory is primarily about imitation and social contagion without much emphasis on reinforcement or interaction in smaller groups. key processes in observational learning 1. Attention – To learn effectively, an individual must first pay attention to the behavior being modeled. Without attention, the learner cannot internalize the behavior. 2. Retention –For an observer to reproduce a behavior later, they must be able to retain the observed information. This involves storing the information in memory in a way that can be retrieved and used when necessary by way of cognitive processes such as encoding, rehearsal, and mental organization. 3. Reproduction – Involves physically or mentally reproducing the observed behavior. Just because a person has paid attention and retained information doesn’t mean they can automatically perform the 2|P age  THEORIES IN CRIME CAUSATION JEFFREY E. OMALLAO behavior. They need to have the necessary motor skills or cognitive ability to reproduce the behavior. 4. Motivation – Even if all the above processes occur, motivation determines whether the observer will actually engage in reproducing the behavior. Motivation is influenced by both internal factors (like personal goals and values) and external factors (like rewards, punishments, or feedback.) These four processes—Attention, Retention, Reproduction, and Motivation—work together to explain how people learn from observing others, but each step is essential. Without attention, there’s no initial learning; without retention, there’s nothing to recall; without reproduction, the behavior can’t be acted out; and without motivation, the observer may choose not to perform the learned behavior at all. Neutralization Theory (Gresham Sykes) Developed by Gresham Sykes and David Matza in 1957, proposes that individuals engage in deviant or criminal behavior by justifying or "neutralizing" their actions. This theory suggests that before committing a crime, individuals use certain techniques of neutralization to mitigate guilt or shame, allowing them to violate social norms or laws while maintaining their self-image as law-abiding citizens. Sykes and Matza argue that most criminals still subscribe to the dominant societal values, such as honesty, fairness, and respect for others. However, before engaging in deviant behavior, they use neutralization techniques to temporarily suspend these values, making it easier to commit the act. 3|P age  THEORIES IN CRIME CAUSATION JEFFREY E. OMALLAO Techniques of Neutralization: 1. Denial of Responsibility - The individual believes they are not personally responsible for their actions, suggesting that external factors (e.g., poverty, peer pressure, or intoxication) made them act the way they did. 2. Denial of the Victim - In this case, the individual justifies their behavior by claiming that the victim deserved what happened to them. The deviant redefines the victim as unworthy of sympathy. 3. Condemnation of the Condemners - individual shifts the focus from their behavior to the behavior of those who disapprove of their actions. They accuse their critics of being hypocritical or having no right to judge them. Drift Theory (David Matza) Sykes and Matza’s Neutralization Theory is closely related to Matza’s Drift Theory, developed in the 1960s, is a criminological theory that explains how individuals, particularly juveniles, can move between conventional, law-abiding behavior and deviant, criminal behavior. Matza introduced the concept of "drift" to explain that individuals are not fully committed to either deviance or conformity, but instead fluctuate between the two, depending on circumstances. This drift occurs because these individuals remain attached to conventional values but are influenced by situations that make deviance appealing or acceptable 4|P age  THEORIES IN CRIME CAUSATION JEFFREY E. OMALLAO Differential Association Theory (DAT) Differential Association Theory is a criminological theory developed by Edwin H. Sutherland in the early 20th century. It proposes that criminal behavior is learned through social interaction, particularly within intimate personal groups. The theory focuses on the social environment's role in influencing individuals to commit criminal acts, asserting that behavior is not inherent but learned. Sutherland’s theory of differential association which contains nine propositions as follows: 1. Criminal behavior is learned. 2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication. 3. The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups. 4. When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes:  techniques of committing the crime, which is sometimes very complicated and sometimes very simple; and  the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes. 5. Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity. 6. The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti- criminal patterns involves all the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning. 7. Although criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those general needs and values, because noncriminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values. 5|P age  THEORIES IN CRIME CAUSATION JEFFREY E. OMALLAO According to Differential Association Theory (DAT) the learning process may be influenced by four factors such as:  Frequency :How often one is exposed to criminal attitudes.  Duration: How long one is exposed to these attitudes.  Priority: The importance of the relationships (e.g., family vs. acquaintances).  Intensity: The emotional significance of the association (e.g., close friends vs. distant friends). Differential Reinforcement Theory (Robert Burgess and Robert Akers) Is a criminological theory developed by Robert Burgess and Ronald Akers in 1966. It is an extension of Edwin Sutherland's Differential Association Theory and integrates principles of operant conditioning from behavioral psychology, particularly the work of B.F. Skinner. The theory proposes that criminal behavior is learned through both social interaction and reinforcement (rewards and punishments), and individuals are more likely to engage in deviance if they are rewarded for it. Similar to Sutherland's Differential Association Theory, Burgess and Akers argue that criminal behavior is learned in the same way as any other behavior—through social interaction with others. Differential Reinforcement Theory incorporates principles of operant conditioning, which suggests that behavior is shaped by rewards (reinforcements) and punishments. 6|P age  THEORIES IN CRIME CAUSATION JEFFREY E. OMALLAO 1. Positive reinforcement: Behavior is strengthened when followed by a reward or positive consequence (e.g., receiving praise for committing a crime). 2. Negative reinforcement: Behavior is strengthened when it removes an unpleasant condition (e.g., stealing to avoid poverty or social embarrassment). 3. Positive punishment: Behavior is discouraged by the addition of an unpleasant consequence (e.g., being arrested or fined). 4. Negative punishment: Behavior is discouraged by the removal of a positive condition (e.g., losing the trust of family members after engaging in crime). Differential reinforcement refers to the balance of rewards and punishments that follow a particular behavior. If the rewards for engaging in criminal behavior outweigh the punishments, an individual is more likely to repeat the deviant act Social Control Theories (Hirschi, Reckless, and Hagan) Social Control Theories focus on why individuals conform to social norms and do not engage in deviant behavior, as opposed to why they do commit crimes. These theories emphasize the importance of social bonds, self-control, and societal institutions in preventing deviance. Prominent theorists like Travis Hirschi, Walter Reckless, and John Hagan have developed different versions of control theory, each offering unique perspectives on how social control operates. 7|P age  THEORIES IN CRIME CAUSATION JEFFREY E. OMALLAO Travis Hirschi – Social Bond Theory (1969) Hirschi’s Social Bond Theory, also known as Control Theory, posits that people refrain from committing crimes due to the strength of their bonds to society. According to Hirschi, individuals with strong social bonds are more likely to conform to societal norms, while those with weak bonds are more likely to engage in deviant or criminal behavior. Hirschi identified four key components of the social bond that help prevent deviance: 1.Attachment - Refers to the emotional connections and relationships that people have with others, particularly family, friends, and community. Strong attachments encourage conformity because individuals do not want to risk damaging their relationships by engaging in deviant behavior. Example: A teenager who is close to their parents and teachers is less likely to engage in delinquent activities because they fear disappointing these important figures. 2. Commitment - Commitment refers to the investment individuals make in conventional activities, such as education, career, or community involvement. The more committed individuals are to these conventional activities, the less likely they are to risk losing their investments by engaging in criminal acts. Example: A student who is dedicated to getting good grades and securing a college scholarship is less likely to participate in criminal behavior, as they have a lot to lose. 3.Involvement - Involvement focuses on how time-consuming conventional activities (like school, work, or sports) can reduce opportunities to engage in deviance. People who are busy with productive activities have less time to get involved in criminal acts. 8|P age  THEORIES IN CRIME CAUSATION JEFFREY E. OMALLAO Example: A teenager who spends most of their time studying and playing sports has less time to engage in deviant activities like drug use. 4.Belief - Belief refers to an individual’s acceptance of social norms and values, such as laws and ethical standards. Those who strongly believe in society’s rules are more likely to conform to them. Example: A person who believes in the morality of the law is less likely to break it, as they internalize the belief that crime is inherently wrong. 2. Walter Reckless – Containment Theory (1961) Walter Reckless’s Containment Theory suggests that individuals are subject to both internal and external pressures that can push them toward deviant behavior. However, they also have internal and external containment mechanisms that help them resist these pressures. Key Concepts of Containment Theory: 1. Internal Containment - refers to an individual’s internal self- control, conscience, values, and sense of responsibility. It is the personal, internalized ability to resist temptations and pressures to commit deviant acts. Example: A person with a strong sense of self-discipline and personal ethics may resist peer pressure to commit a crime, even if external factors encourage it. 2. External Containment - consists of societal structures, rules, and controls, such as family, school, law enforcement, and social institutions. These external forces work to contain individuals’ deviant tendencies by setting boundaries and expectations for behavior. Example: A teenager may avoid criminal behavior because of the fear of getting caught by the police or disappointing their family. 9|P age  THEORIES IN CRIME CAUSATION JEFFREY E. OMALLAO PUSH-PULL Forces in Containment Theory Pulls represent the features of the environment that may serve to attract some individuals toward deviancy. According to Reckless, pulls might be environmental distractions, attractions, temptations, carriers of delinquent and criminal patterns, and subcultures. Pushes are based in individual psychology and are considered to be internal motivators toward deviancy. Pushes may include internal drives and frustrations, feelings of restlessness, disappointments, hostility, inferiority, and rebellion. Reckless acknowledged that there are some extreme internal motivations (pushes) that cannot be contained such as those derived from mental illness (i.e., compulsions). 3. John Hagan – Power-Control Theory (1987) John Hagan’s Power-Control Theory focuses on the relationship between family structure, gender roles, and the socialization of children in influencing deviant behavior. Hagan’s theory combines elements of conflict theory and control theory, arguing that power dynamics in families shape the way children are controlled and, subsequently, the likelihood of engaging in deviant behavior. Key Concepts of Power-Control Theory: 1. Family Structure and Gender Socialization - Hagan’s theory posits that families can be classified as either patriarchal or egalitarian based on the distribution of power between parents, particularly the role of the father. 2. Patriarchal Families - in patriarchal families, fathers hold dominant positions of power, while mothers are responsible for socializing 10 | P a g e  THEORIES IN CRIME CAUSATION JEFFREY E. OMALLAO daughters to be more obedient and conforming, thereby reducing the likelihood of daughters engaging in deviant behavior. 3. Egalitarian Families- In egalitarian families, power is more equally distributed between parents, and children, regardless of gender, are socialized more equally. This equal socialization increases the likelihood that both sons and daughters will engage in deviant behavior because there is less emphasis on controlling girls. Control and Deviance: Subcultural Theories (Cohen, Miller, Murray, Cloward and Ohlin) Subcultural theories in criminology focus on how certain groups or subcultures in society develop their own values and norms, which may conflict with mainstream norms, leading to criminal or deviant behavior. These theories are particularly important in understanding juvenile delinquency and the behavior of marginalized communities. Several theorists, including Cohen, Miller, Murray, Cloward, and Ohlin, have made significant contributions to this field. Albert Cohen: Delinquent Boys (1955) Cohen's work focuses on the idea of status frustration. He argued that working-class boys are often unable to achieve success through conventional means (e.g., education, career) because they lack the necessary skills or social advantages. This leads to frustration, which can result in the formation of delinquent subcultures. These boys reject mainstream values and form their own subcultures where status is achieved through behaviors that go against societal norms, such as vandalism or theft. Example: A gang may place high value on toughness, aggression, or rule-breaking, which provides a sense of identity and belonging for its members. 11 | P a g e  THEORIES IN CRIME CAUSATION JEFFREY E. OMALLAO Walter Miller: Focal Concerns Theory (1958) Miller argued that delinquency arises not from frustration, but from the cultural values of lower-class communities. He proposed that lower-class youth are socialized into a distinct set of values or "focal concerns," such as toughness, smartness (ability to outwit others), and excitement. These focal concerns, while not necessarily criminal in themselves, increase the likelihood of involvement in deviant activities. Example: Boys in working-class neighborhoods may value street smarts over academic success, leading them to engage in behaviors like petty crime or fighting. Charles Murray: The Underclass (1990s) Murray is known for his controversial views on the concept of the underclass, a group he sees as being socially isolated due to welfare dependence and an absence of traditional work ethic. According to Murray, welfare policies have created a subculture of poverty where individuals reject the norms of work and responsibility. Murray’s theory suggests that government welfare programs have led to the creation of a subculture with deviant values, including crime, due to a lack of economic opportunity and moral responsibility. Example: He argued that this underclass is more likely to engage in criminal activities because they lack the motivation to pursue legal means of success. 12 | P a g e  THEORIES IN CRIME CAUSATION JEFFREY E. OMALLAO Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin: Differential Opportunity Theory (1960) Cloward and Ohlin expanded on Merton’s strain theory, suggesting that access to illegitimate opportunities also varies among social groups. While some youths have access to criminal networks that provide opportunities for success through illegal means, others do not. They identified three types of delinquent subcultures: (1) Criminal subcultures, where youths have access to organized crime; (2) Conflict subcultures, where violence and gang activity are prevalent; and (3) Retreatist subcultures, where individuals retreat into substance abuse or other forms of escapism due to their inability to succeed in either legitimate or criminal activities. Example: In a neighborhood with an established criminal network, a youth may be more likely to become involved in organized crime, while in areas with no such network, they may turn to more violent or self- destructive behaviors. 13 | P a g e