Anatomy & Physiology: Blood (PDF)

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY April 10, 2024 Prepared by: Mikaila Go 8: Blood (“river of life”) lipid transport OUTLINE...

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY April 10, 2024 Prepared by: Mikaila Go 8: Blood (“river of life”) lipid transport OUTLINE SUBSTANCES TRANSPORTED BY BLOOD Nutrients (glucose, fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins) ★ FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD Waste Products of metabolism (urea, uric acid) ★ COMPONENTS OF BLOOD Respiratory gases (𝑂2 and 𝐶𝑂2) ○ When blood is separated Hormones (steroids and thyroid hormone are carried by plasma ★ PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND VOLUME proteins) ○ Blood characteristics ○ Blood Volume ★ PLASMA ○ Plasma proteins FORMED ELEMENT (cells) 45% ★ FORMED ELEMENTS ○ Erythrocytes CELL TYPE NUMBER FUNCTIONS 3 ○ Leukocytes (per 𝑚𝑚 of blood) ○ Platelets ★ HEMATOPOIESIS (Blood Cell Formation) Erythrocytes 4-6 million Transport oxygen and ★ FORMATION OF RED BLOOD CELLS (red blood cells) help transport carbon ★ HEMOSTASIS dioxide ○ Disorders of hemostasis ★ HUMAN BLOOD GROUPS Leukocytes 4,800-10,800 Defense Immunity ○ ABO Blood Group (white blood cells) (Basophil, Lymphocyte, ○ Rh Blood Group Eosinophil, Neutrophil, Rh-related problem during pregnancy Monocyte) ★ BLOOD TYPING ★ DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF BLOOD Platelets 250,00-400,000 Blood clotting FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD DISTRIBUTION ➔ Blood transports everything that must be carried from one place to another, such as: ◆ Nutrients ◆ Wastes ◆ Hormones ◆ Body heat REGULATION ➔ Maintaining appropriate body temperature ➔ Maintaining normal pH in body tissues ➔ Maintaining adequate fluid volume in the circulatory system PROTECTION ➔ Preventing blood loss ➔ Preventing infection PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS & VOLUME COMPONENTS OF BLOOD ➔ Blood is the only fluid tissue, a type of connective tissue, in the human BLOOD CHARACTERISTICS body ➔ Sticky, opaque fluid ➔ COMPONENTS OF BLOOD ➔ Heavier and thicker than water ◆ Formed elements (living cells) ➔ Color range ◆ Plasma (nonliving fluid matrix) ◆ SCARLET RED - oxygen-rich blood WHEN BLOOD IS SEPARATED ◆ DULL RED / PURPLE - oxygen-poor blood ➔ Metallic, salty taste 1) Erythrocytes sink to the bottom (45% of blood, a percentage known as ➔ Blood pH is slightly alkaline, between 7.35 and 7.45 hematocrit) ➔ Blood temperature is slightly higher than body temperature, at 38℃ or 2) Buffy coat contains leukocytes and platelets (less than 1% of blood) 100.4℉ Buffy Coat is a thin, whitish layer between the erythrocytes and plasma BLOOD VOLUME 3) Plasma rises to the top (55% of blood) ➔ About 5-6 liters, or about 6 quarts, of blood are found in a healthy adult ➔ Blood makes up 8% of body weight PLASMA 55% PLASMA CONSTITUENT MAJOR FUNCTIONS ➔ 90% water ➔ Straw-colored fluid WATER 90% of plasma volume ➔ Includes many dissolved substances Solvent for carrying other ◆ Nutrients substances ◆ Salts (electrolytes) Absorbs heat ◆ Respiratory gases ◆ Hormones SALTS (electrolytes) Osmotic balance ◆ Plasma proteins Sodium pH buffering ◆ Waste products Potassium regulation of membrane ➔ Blood composition varies as cells exchange substances with the blood Calcium permeability ◆ Liver makes more proteins when levels drop Magnesium ◆ Respiratory and urinary systems restore blood pH to normal Chloride when blood becomes too acidic or alkaline Bicarbonate ➔ Plasma helps distribute body heat PLASMA PROTEINS PLASMA PROTEINS Albumin Osmotic balance & pH ➔ Most abundant solutes in plasma buffering ➔ Most are made by the LIVER Fibrinogen Clotting of blood INCLUDES: Globulins Defense (antibodies) and ALBUMIN An important blood buffer and ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY April 10, 2024 Prepared by: Mikaila Go contributes to osmotic pressure HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA - lysis of RBC s as a result of bacterial infections CLOTTING PROTEINS Help to stem blood loss when a blood PERNICIOUS ANEMIA - due to lack of (FIBRINOGEN - inactive protein) vessel is injured vitamin B12 (usually due to lack of intrinsic factor required for absorption ANTIBODIES Help protect the body from pathogens of the vitamin; intrinsic factor is formed by stomach mucosa cells) APLASTIC ANEMIA - ➔ Blood composition varies as cells exchange substances with the blood Depression/destruction of bone marrow ◆ Liver makes more proteins when levels drop by cancer, radiation, or certain ◆ Respiratory and urinary systems restore blood pH to normal medications when blood becomes too acidic (acidosis) or alkaline (alkalosis) ➔ Plasma helps distribute body heat Inadequate hemoglobin content in RBCs: FORMED ELEMENTS IRON-DEFICIENCY ANEMIA -Lack of iron in diet or slow/prolonged bleeding ERYTHROCYTES Red blood cells (such as heavy menstrual flow or bleeding ulcer), which depletes iron LEUKOCYTES White blood cells reserves needed to make hemoglobin; RBCs are small and pale because they PLATELETS Cell fragments lack hemoglobin Thrombocytes SICKLE CELL ANEMIA (SCA) ➔ Results from abnormally shaped hemoglobin ◆ Genetic defect leads to abnormal hemoglobin, which becomes sharp POLYCYTHEMIA ➔ Disorder resulting from excessive or abnormal increase of RBCs due to: ◆ POLYCYTHEMIA VERA - bone marrow cancer ERYTHROCYTES ◆ SECONDARY POLYCYTHEMIA ➔ Red blood cells or RBCs - life at higher ➔ Main function is to CARRY OXYGEN altitudes ➔ RBCs differ from other blood cells ➔ Increase in RBCs slows ◆ ANUCLEATE (no nucleus) blood flow and increases ◆ Contain few organelles; lack mitochondria blood viscosity ◆ Essentially bags of hemoglobin (Hb) ◆ Shaped like biconcave discs 3 LEUKOCYTES ➔ Normal count is 5 Million RBCs per cubic millimeter (𝑚𝑚 ) of blood ➔ White blood cells, or WBCs ➔ Crucial in body’s defense against disease ➔ Complete cells, with nucleus and organelles ➔ Able to move into and out of blood vessels (diapedesis) ➔ Respond to chemicals released by damaged tissues (known as POSITIVE CHEMOTAXIS) ➔ Move by amoeboid motion 3 ➔ 4,800 to 10,800 WBCs per 𝑚𝑚 of blood ➔ HEMOGLOBIN is an IRON-BEARING PROTEIN LEUKOCYTOSIS ➔ WBC count above 11,00 3 ◆ Heme (pigment) + globin (protein) = PIGMENTED PROTEIN cells per 𝑚𝑚 of blood ◆ Binds oxygen ➔ Generally indicates an ◆ Each hemoglobin molecule can bind 4 oxygen molecules infection ◆ Each erythrocyte has 250 million hemoglobin molecules ◆ Normal blood contains 12-18g of hemoglobin per 100 milliliters LEUKOPENIA ➔ Abnormally low WBC count (ml) of blood ➔ Commonly caused by HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE OF RBCs certain drugs, such as corticosteroids and anticancer agents ANEMIA ➔ A decrease in the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood due to: LEUKEMIA ➔ Bone marrow becomes ◆ Lower-than-norm cancerous al number of ➔ Numerous immature WBC RBCs are produced ◆ Abnormal or deficient TYPES OF LEUKOCYTES hemoglobin content in the GRANULOCYTES ➔ Granules in their cytoplasm RBCs can be stained ➔ Possess lobed nuclei HYPOXIA = ↓ Oxygen in the tissue ➔ Include neutrophils, HYPOXEMIA = ↓ Oxygen in the blood eosinophils, and basophils TYPES OF ANEMIA NEUTROPHILS Most numerous WBC Decreased in RBC numbers: Multilobed nucleus HEMORRHAGIC ANEMIA - results Cytoplasm stains pink and from sudden hemorrhage contains fine granules ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY April 10, 2024 Prepared by: Mikaila Go Function as phagocytes at FORMATION OF RED BLOOD CELLS active sites of infection Number increase during ➔ Since RBCs are anucleate, they are unable to dived, grow, or synthesize infection proteins 3,00-7,00 neutrophils per ➔ RBCs wear out in 100 to 120 days 3 ➔ When worn out, RBCs are eliminated by phagocytes in the spleen or liver 𝑚𝑚 of blood (40%-70% ➔ Lost cells are replaced by division of hemocytoblasts in the red bone of WBCs) marrow ➔ Rate of RBC production is controlled by a hormone called EOSINOPHILS ERYTHROPOIETIN Nucleus stains blue-red ➔ Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as response to a reduced oxygen Brick-red cytoplasmic levels in the blood granules ➔ Homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback from blood oxygen levels Function is to kill parasitic worms and play a role in allergy attacks 100-400 eosinophils per 3 𝑚𝑚 of blood (1%-4% of WBCs) BASOPHILS Rarest of the WBCs Large histamine-containing granules that stain dark blue Contain heparin (ANTICOAGULANT) 3 HEMOSTASIS 20-50 basophils per 𝑚𝑚 of blood (0%-1% of WBCs) ➔ Process of stopping the bleeding that results from a break in a blood vessel AGRANULOCYTES ➔ Lack visible cytoplasmic ➔ Blood usually clots within 3 to 6 minutes granules ➔ The clot remains as endothelium regenerates ➔ Nuclei are spherical, oval, ➔ The clot is broken down after tissue repair or kidney-shaped ➔ Hemostasis involves 3 phases ➔ Include lymphocytes and 1. Vascular spasms monocytes 2. Platelet plug formation 3. Coagulation (blood clotting) LYMPHOCYTES STEP 1: VASCULAR SPASMS Immediate response to Large, dark purple nucleus blood vessel injury Slightly larger than RBCs Vasoconstriction causes Reside in lymphatic tissues blood vessel to spasm Play a role in immune Spasms narrow the blood response vessel, decreasing blood 1,500-3,000 lymphocytes 3 loss per 𝑚𝑚 of blood FACTORS: (20%-40% of WBCs) ➔ Direct injury to vascular smooth muscle MONOCYTES ➔ Chemicals released by Largest of the white blood endothelial cells cells ➔ Platelets Distinctive U- or ➔ Reflexes initiated by local kidney-shaped nucleus pain receptors Function as macrophages when they migrates into STEP 2: PLATELET PLUG Collagen fibers are exposed tissues FORMATION by a break in a blood vessel Important in fighting chronic Platelets become “sticky” infection and cling to fibers 100-700 monocytes per Anchored platelets release 3 𝑚𝑚 of blood (4%-8% of chemicals to attract more WBCs) platelets Platelets pile up to form a List of WBCs, from MOST to LEAST ABUNDANT platelet plug (white thrombus) Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas Neutrophils STEP 3: COAGULATION OR BLOOD Injured tissues release Lymphocytes CLOTTING tissue factor Monocytes PF3 (a phospholipid) Eosinophils interacts with TF, blood Basophils protein clotting factors and calcium ions to trigger a clotting cascade PLATELETS Prothrombin activator ➔ Fragments of megakaryocytes (multinucleate cells) converts prothrombin to ➔ Needed for the clotting process thrombin (an enzyme) 3 ➔ Normal platelet count is 300,000 platelets per 𝑚𝑚 of blood DISORDERS OF HEMOSTASIS HEMATOPOIESIS (Blood Cell Formation) ➔ The process of blood cell formation UNDESIRABLE CLOTTING ➔ Occurs in red bone marrow - MYELOID TISSUE ➔ All blood cells are derived from a common stem cell - HEMOCYTOBLAST THROMBUS EMBOLUS ➔ HEMOCYTOBLAST form two types of descendants: ◆ LYMPHOID STEM CELL - produces lymphocytes A clot in an unbroken blood A thrombus that breaks ◆ MYELOID STEM CELL - produce all other formed elements vessel away and floats freely in the Can be deadly in areas such bloodstream ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY April 10, 2024 Prepared by: Mikaila Go as the lungs Can later clog vessels in immune system is sensitized after the first pregnancy critical areas such as the ○ In a second pregnancy, the mother’s immune system brain produces antibodies to attack the Rh+ blood (hemolytic disease of the newborn) BLEEDING DISORDERS BLOOD TYPING THROMBOCYTOPENIA HEMOPHILIA ➔ Blood samples are mixed with anti-A and anti-B serum ➔ Agglutination or lack of agglutination leads to identification of blood type Insufficient number of Hereditary bleeding disorder ➔ Typing for ABO and Rh factors is done in the same manner circulating platelets Normal clotting factors are ➔ CROSS MATCHING - testing for agglutination of donor RBCs by the Arises from any condition missing recipient's serum, and vice versa that suppresses the bone Minor tissue damage can DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF BLOOD marrow cause life-threatening Even normal movements prolonged bleeding ➔ Sites of blood cell formation can cause bleeding from ◆ The fetal liver and spleen are early sites of blood cell formation small blood vessels that ◆ Bone marrow takes over hematopoiesis by the seventh month require platelets for clotting ➔ Congenital blood defects include various types of hemolytic anemias and Evidence by PETECHIAE hemophilia (small purplish blotches on ➔ Incompatibility between maternal and fetal blood can result in fetal the skin) cyanosis, resulting from destruction of fetal blood cells ➔ Fetal hemoglobin differs from hemoglobin produced after birth ➔ Physiologic jaundice occurs in infants when the liver cannot rid the body of BLOOD GROUPS & TRANSFUSIONS hemoglobin breakdown products fast enough ➔ Large losses of blood have serious consequences ➔ Leukemias are most common in the very you and very old ◆ Loss of 15% to 30% causes weakness ◆ Older adults are also at risk for anemia and clotting disorders ◆ Loss of over 30% causes shock, which can be fatal ➔ Blood transfusions are given for substantial blood loss, to treat severe anemia or for thrombocytopenia HUMAN BLOOD GROUPS ➔ Blood contains genetically determined proteins known as ANTIGENS ➔ Antigens are substances that the body recognizes as foreign and that the immune system may attack ◆ Most antigens are foreign proteins ◆ We tolerate our own “self” antigens ➔ ANTIBODIES are the “recognizers” that bind foreign antigens ➔ Blood is “types” by using antibodies that will cause blood with certain proteins to clump (agglutination) and lyse ➔ There are over 30 common red blood cell antigens ➔ The most vigorous transfusion reactions are caused by ABO and Rh blood group antigens ABO BLOOD GROUP Blood types are based on the presence or absence of 2 ANTIGENS 1. TYPE A 2. TYPE B TYPE AB ★ Presence of both antigens A & B ★ Can receive A, B, AB, and O blood TYPE A ★ Presence of antigen A ★ Can receive A and O blood TYPE B ★ Presence of antigen B ★ Can receive B and O blood TYPE O ★ “UNIVERSAL DONOR” ★ Lack of both antigens A and B ★ Can receive O blood Rh BLOOD GROUP Named for the eight Rh antigens (agglutinogen D) Most Americans are Rh+ (Rh-positive), meaning they carry Rh antigen If an Rh- (Rh-negative) person receives Rh+ blood: ○ The immune system becomes sensitized and begins producing antibodies; hemolysis does not occur, because as it takes time to produce antibodies ○ Second, and subsequent, transfusions involve antibodies attacking donor’s Rh+ RBCs, and hemolysis occurs (rupture of RBCs) Rh-RELATED PROBLEM DURING PREGNANCY Danger occurs only when the mother is Rh-, the father is Rh+, and the child inherits the Rh+ factor RhoGAM shot can prevent buildup of anti-Rh+ antibodies in mother’s blood The mismatch of an Rh- mother carrying an Rh+ baby can cause problems for the unborn child ○ The first pregnancy usually proceeds without problems; the