World War I: Module 7 PDF

Module 7 World War I Essential Question What was the most significant impact of World War I? About the Photograph: This photograph In thi...

Module 7 World War I Essential Question What was the most significant impact of World War I? About the Photograph: This photograph In this module you will examine the causes and consequences of World depicts a battle on the western front during War I. The conflict in Europe forced the United States to abandon its World War I. Brutal battles like this would neutrality, and it spurred social, political, and economic change in the make the war the bloodiest in history up to United States that time. What You Will Learn... Lesson 1: World War I Begins........................ 314 The Big Idea As conflict in Europe intensified, the United States was Explore ONLINE! forced to abandon its neutrality. VIDEOS, including... Lesson 2: The United States Joins the War............... 326 Death of Glory The Big Idea The United States mobilized a large army and navy to A Continent Mobilizes help the Allies achieve victory. The Last Day of World War I Lesson 3: The War at Home......................... 336 The Big Idea World War I spurred social, political, and economic Document-Based Investigations change in the United States. Lesson 4: Wilson Fights for Peace..................... 348 Graphic Organizers The Big Idea European leaders opposed most of Wilson’s peace plan, and the U.S. Senate failed to ratify the peace treaty. Interactive Games Image with Hotspots: Trench Warfare Carousel: Technology at War 312 Module 7 Timeline of Events 1913–1920 Explore ONLINE! United States Events World Events 1913 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife are assassinated. 1914 Hollywood, California, becomes the center of movie production in the United States. 1914 Germany declares war on Russia and France. Great Britain declares war on Germany and Austria-Hungary. 1915 German U-boats sink the Lusitania, 1915 Albert Einstein and 1,198 people die. proposes his general theory of relativity. 1915 Alexander Graham Bell makes the first transcontinental telephone call. 1916 Woodrow Wilson is 1916 The battles of Verdun reelected president. and the Somme claim millions of lives. 1917 The Selective Service Act sets up the draft. 1917 Russia withdraws from the war. 1917 The United States declares war on Germany. 1918 Congress passes the Sedition Act. 1918 The Bolsheviks establish a Communist regime in Russia. 1918 President Wilson proposes 1918 World War I ends. the League of Nations. 1919 Congress approves the 1919 A worldwide influenza Nineteenth Amendment, granting epidemic kills more than 30 women the right to vote. million people. 1920 World War I 313  Lesson 1 World War I Begins One American’s Story The Big Idea It was about 1:00 a.m. on April 6, 1917, and the members of the U.S. As conflict in Europe intensified, House of Representatives were tired. For the past 15 hours, they had the United States was forced to been debating President Wilson’s request for a declaration of war abandon its neutrality. against Germany. There was a breathless hush as Jeannette Rankin Why It Matters Now of Montana, the first woman elected to Congress, stood The United States remains up. Rankin declared, “I want to stand by my involved in European and world country but I cannot vote for war. I vote affairs. no.” Later she reflected on her action. Key Terms and People nationalism militarism “I believe that the first vote I Allies cast was the most significant Central powers vote and a most significant balance of power act on the part of women, Archduke Franz Ferdinand because women are going to trench warfare have to stop war. I felt at the “no man’s land” time that the first woman [in Congress] should take the Lusitania first stand, that the first time Sussex pledge the first woman had a chance Jeannette Rankin was the only Zimmermann note to say no to war she should member of the House to vote say it.” against the United States entering —Jeannette Rankin, quoted in both World War I and World War II. Jeannette Rankin: First Lady in Congress After much debate as to whether the United States should join the fight, Congress voted in favor of U.S. entry into World War I. With this decision, the government abandoned the neutrality that America had maintained for three years. What made the United States change its policy in 1917? 314 Module 7  Causes of World War I Although many Americans wanted to stay out of the war, several factors made American neutrality difficult to maintain. As an industrial and imperial power, the United States felt many of the same pressures that had led the nations of Europe into devastating warfare. Historians gener- ally cite four long-term causes of World War I: nationalism, imperialism, Vocabulary militarism, and the formation of a system of alliances. alliance a formal agreement or union NATIONALISM Throughout the 19th century, politics in the Western between nations world were deeply influenced by the concept of nationalism—a devotion to the interests and culture of one’s nation. Often, nationalism led to com- petitive and antagonistic rivalries among nations. In this atmosphere of competition, many feared Germany’s growing power in Europe. In addition, various ethnic groups resented domination by others. They longed for their nations to become independent. Many ethnic groups looked to larger nations for protection. Russia regarded itself as the pro- tector of Europe’s Slavic peoples, no matter which government they lived under. Among these Slavic peoples were the Serbs. Serbia, located in the Balkans, was an independent nation. However, millions of ethnic Serbs lived under the rule of Austria-Hungary. As a result, Russia and Austria- Hungary were rivals for influence over Serbia. IMPERIALISM For many centuries, European nations had been building empires. These nations had slowly extended their economic and political control over various peoples of the world. Colonies supplied the European imperial powers with raw materials and provided markets for manufac- tured goods. As Germany industrialized, it competed with France and Britain in the contest for colonies. MILITARISM Empires were expensive to build and to defend. The growth of nationalism and imperialism led to increased military spending. Each nation wanted stronger armed forces than those of any potential enemy. The imperial powers followed a policy of militarism—the development of armed forces and their use as a tool of diplomacy. By 1890 the strongest nation on the European continent was Germany. It had set up an army reserve system that drafted and trained young men. At first, Britain was not alarmed by Germany’s military expansion. As an island nation, Britain had always relied on its navy for defense and protec- tion of its shipping routes. In addition, the British navy was the strongest in the world. However, in 1897 Wilhelm II, Germany’s kaiser, or emperor, decided that his nation should also become a major sea power in order to compete more successfully against the British. Soon, British and German shipyards competed to build the largest battleships and destroyers. France, Italy, Japan, and the United States quickly joined the naval arms race. ALLIANCE SYSTEM By 1907 there were two major defense alliances in Europe. The Triple Entente, later known as the Allies, consisted of France, Britain, and Russia. The Triple Alliance consisted of Germany, World War I 315  German emperor Wilhelm II (center) marches with two of his generals, Hindenburg (left) and Ludendorff, during World War I. Austria-Hungary, and Italy. Germany and Austria-Hungary, together with the Ottoman Empire—an empire of mostly Middle Eastern lands con- trolled by the Turks—were later known as the Central powers. Some European leaders believed that these alliances created a balance Reading Check of power, in which each nation or alliance had equal strength. Many lead- Analyze Causes ers thought that the alliance system would help decrease the chances of How did nationalism and imperialism lead war. They hoped that no single nation would attack another out of fear to conflict in Europe? that the attacked nation’s allies would join the fight. War Breaks Out Despite their hopes, the major European powers’ long history of national tensions, imperial rivalries, and military expansion proved too great for alliances to overcome. As it turned out, a single spark set off a major conflict. AN ASSASSINATION LEADS TO WAR That spark flared in the Balkan Peninsula. This area was known as “the powder keg of Europe.” In addi- tion to the ethnic rivalries among the Balkan peoples, Europe’s leading powers had interests there. Russia wanted access to the Mediterranean Sea. Germany wanted a rail link to the Ottoman Empire. Austria-Hungary, which had taken control of Bosnia in 1878, accused Serbia of subverting its rule over Bosnia. The “powder keg” was ready to explode. In June 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, visited the Bosnian capital, Sarajevo. As the royal entourage drove through the city, Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip stepped from the crowd and shot the Archduke and his wife, Sophie. Princip was a member of the Black Hand, an organization promoting Serbian nationalism. The assassinations touched off a diplomatic crisis. On July 28 Austria-Hungary declared what was expected to be a short war against Serbia. 316 Module 7  NOW & THEN Crisis in the Balkans After World War I, Bosnia became part of a country that eventually became known as Yugoslavia. Although Yugoslavia included various religious and ethnic groups, the government was dominated by Serbs. In 1991 Yugoslavia broke apart, and Bosnia declared independence in 1992. However, Serbs wanted Bosnia to remain part of Serbian- controlled Yugoslavia. But peace in the Balkans did not last. In the late A bloody civil war broke out. This war became 1990s Albanians in the province of Kosovo also tried notorious for the mass murder and deportation to break away from Serbia. Serbia’s violent response, of Bosnian Muslims. This process became known which included the “ethnic cleansing” of Albanians, as “ethnic cleansing.” In 1995 the United States prompted NATO to intervene. Kosovo declared its helped negotiate a cease-fire. independence in 2008, despite Serbia’s opposition. The alliance system pulled one nation after another into the conflict. On August 1 Germany, obligated by treaty to support Austria-Hungary, declared war on Russia. On August 3 Germany declared war on Russia’s ally France. After Germany invaded Belgium, Britain declared war on Germany and Austria-Hungary. The Great War had begun. THE FIGHTING STARTS On August 3, 1914, Germany invaded Belgium, fol- lowing a strategy known as the Schlieffen Plan. This plan called for a holding action against Russia, combined with a quick drive through Belgium to Paris. After France had fallen, the two German armies would defeat Russia. Euro- pean leaders were confident of a short war. Kaiser Wilhelm II even promised German soldiers that they would be home “before the leaves had fallen.” As German troops swept across Belgium, thousands of civilians fled in ter- ror. In Brussels, the Belgian capital, an American war correspondent described Vocabulary the first major refugee crisis of the 20th century. refugee a person who flees in search of protection or shelter, “[We] found the side streets blocked with their carts. Into these they had as in times of war or thrown mattresses, or bundles of grain, and heaped upon them were religious persecution families of three generations. Old men in blue smocks, white-haired and bent, old women in caps, the daughters dressed in their one best frock and hat, and clasping in their hands all that was left to them, all that they could stuff into a pillow-case or flour-sack.... Heart-broken, weary, hungry, they passed in an unending caravan.” —Richard Harding Davis, quoted in Hooray for Peace, Hurrah for War Unable to save Belgium, the Allies retreated to the Marne River in France. There they halted the German advance in September 1914. After struggling to outflank each other’s armies, both sides dug in for a long siege. By the spring of 1915, two parallel systems of deep, rat-infested trenches crossed France. World War I 317  Explore ONLINE! Europe at the Start of World War I N ATLANTIC E NORWAY OCEAN British W Blockade SWEDEN S Tannenberg, MapQuest.Com, Inc. Petrograd August 1914 (St. Petersburg) McDougal-Littel, Germans American History Program stop Russian arpe-0311s1-15-e advance. Europe 1914,1919 - Locator Moscow IRELAND North Trim size 8 picas wide X 4 picas deep (Br.) Sea DENMARK 6th Proof date: 5/21/01 Ea R U S S I A s te r Sea n F ro n t O c t. 1 9 1 7 G R E AT NETHERLANDS c 50°N B a lti B R I TA I N London Berlin TANNENBERG Brussels May 1915 GER MANY BELGIUM Lusitania is sunk. Gallipoli, April Paris 1915–January 1916 LUXEMBOURG Allied forces are Vienna defeated in bid to establish a supply Bay route to Russia. of SWITZERLAND AUS TR IA- Biscay FRANCE HUNGARY 40°N PORTUGAL ROMANIA Ad B la ck S e a ria Sarajevo N SERBIA tic S PAIN Sarajevo, June 1914 ITALY K A L Archduke Franz Ferdinand MONTENEGRO A BULGARIA is assassinated. Se B Rome a U L A N S Constantinople ALBANIA N I (Istanbul) E P GALLIPOLI Ae Sea 10°W ge O T T O M A N GREECE an M e d i t e r r a n e a n E M P I R E 0° 20°E S e THE WESTERN FRONT, 1914–1916 a Allied Powers, 1916 A MARNE, 1st battle, Sept. 1914 Central Powers, 1916 el n n Allies stop German advance on Paris C ha NETHERLANDS Neutral countries sh YPRES, 2nd battle, May 1915 li B Germans use chemical weapons for German submarine activity Eng the first time B Brussels Battle VERDUN, Feb.–July 1916 BELGIUM u se C French hold the line in longest battle Me of the war 0 250 500 mi m So D SOMME, 1st battle, July–Nov. 1916 m 0 250 500 km e D Disastrous British offensive LUXEMBOURG Fr German troop movement o nt o Interpret Maps n July se Allied troop movement Oi Aisne 1, 191 6 1. Location About how many miles C Metz separated the city of Paris from e A Rhin M e, arn Paris German forces at the point of nc e Se Farthe va Lunéville Me i st G e r m a n a d G E R M A N Y their closest approach? use Se p t. 5 , 1 9 1 4 ne 0 50 100 mi Mo N 2. Place Consider the geographical sel le 0 50 100 km F R A N C E location of the Allies in relation to W E the Central powers. What advan- S SWITZERLAND tage might the Allies have had? 318 Module 7  The trenches stretched from the Belgian coast to the Swiss Alps. German soldiers occupied one set of trenches, Allied soldiers the other. The scale of slaughter was horrific. During the First Battle of the Somme—which began on July 1, 1916, and lasted until mid-November—the British suffered 60,000 casualties the first day alone. Final casualties totaled about 1.2 million, yet only about seven miles of ground changed hands. This virtual stalemate lasted for more than three years. Elsewhere, the fighting was just as devastating and inconclusive. IN THE TRENCHES The stalemate was mainly an effect of trench warfare, in which armies fought for mere yards of ground. On the battlefields of Europe, there were three main kinds of trenches—front line, support, and reserve. Soldiers spent a period of time in each kind of trench. Dugouts, or underground rooms, were used as officers’ quarters and command posts. Between the trench complexes lay “no man’s land.” This was a barren expanse of mud pockmarked with shell craters and filled with barbed wire. Periodically, the soldiers charged enemy lines, only to be mowed down by machine-gun fire. Life in the trenches was miserable. The soldiers were surrounded by filth, lice, rats, and polluted water that caused dysentery. Many soldiers suffered trench foot. This condition was caused by standing in cold, wet trenches for Trench Warfare 1 Front line trench 2 Support trench Artillery fire 3 Reserve trench “softened up” resistance before an 4 Enemy trench infantry attack. Communication trenches connected the three kinds of Barbed wire trenches. entanglements 3 2 “No Man’s Land” (from 1 25 yards to a mile wide) Dugout 4 Saps were shallow trenches in “no man’s land,” allowing access to machine-gun nests, grenade-throwing positions, and observation posts. World War I 319  long periods of time without changing into dry socks or boots. First, the toes would turn red or blue. Then, they would become numb, and finally, they would start to rot. The only solution was to amputate the toes, and in some cases, the entire foot. A painful infection of the gums and throat, called Reading Check trench mouth, was also common among the soldiers. Analyze Effects The soldiers also suffered from lack of sleep. Constant bombardments and Why were so many other experiences often led to battle fatigue and “shell shock.” This term was European nations pulled into the coined during World War I to describe a complete emotional collapse from conflict? which many never recovered. Americans Question Neutrality Just after the fighting in Europe began, President Woodrow Wilson declared that the United States would remain neutral. His statement reflected a long- standing American commitment to isolationism. Most Americans agreed that there was no reason to join a struggle 3,000 miles away. The war did not threaten American lives or property. This did not mean, however, that certain groups and individuals in the United States were indifferent to who would win the war. Public opinion was strong—but divided. DIVIDED LOYALTIES Socialists criticized the war as a capitalist and imperialist struggle between Germany and England to control mar- kets and colonies in China, Africa, and the Middle East. Pacifists, such as lawyer and politician William Jennings Bryan, believed that war was evil and that the United States should set an example of peace to the world. Many Americans simply did not want their sons to experience the horrors of warfare, as a hit song of 1915 conveyed. “I didn’t raise my boy to be a soldier, I brought him up to be my pride and joy. Who dares to place a musket on his shoulder, To shoot some other mother’s darling boy?” Millions of naturalized U.S. citizens followed the war closely because they still had ties to the nations from which they had emi- The British spread the news of Germany’s atrocious attacks on civilians through grated. For example, many Americans of German descent sympa- propaganda, but most Americans felt the thized with Germany. Americans of Irish descent remembered the war in Europe was not their fight. centuries of British oppression in Ireland. They saw the war as a chance for Ireland to gain its independence. Pressure from some of Vocabulary these ethnic groups in the United States contributed to American neutrality. emigrate to leave Some immigrants created organizations to help the causes of their home- one’s country or lands. Some even advised the government on policies that affected the people region to settle in another; to move of their homelands. On the other hand, many Americans felt close to Britain because of a com- mon ancestry and language as well as similar democratic institutions and legal systems. Germany’s aggressive sweep through Belgium increased Ameri- can sympathy for the Allies. The Germans attacked civilians, destroying vil- lages, cathedrals, libraries, and even hospitals. Some atrocity stories—spread 320 Module 7  by British propaganda—later proved to be false. U.S. Exports to Europe, 1912–1917 However, enough of them proved true that one 2,000 American magazine referred to Germany as “the bully of Europe.” 1,600 Maintaining neutrality proved difficult for Amer- Dollars (in millions) ican businesses. America’s economic ties with the 1,200 Allies were far stronger than its ties with the Cen- 800 tral powers. Before the war, American trade with Britain and France was more than double its trade 400 with Germany. With the start of the war, America’s transatlantic trade became even more lopsided. 0 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 The Allies flooded American manufacturers with Great Britain All Other European Countries orders for all sorts of war supplies. These included France Germany dynamite, cannon powder, submarines, copper wire and tubing, and armored cars. The United States Interpret Graphs shipped millions of dollars of war supplies to the 1. By how much did total U.S. exports to Europe rise or fall between 1914 and 1917? Allies, but requests kept coming. By 1915 American 2. What trends does the graph show before the factories were producing so many supplies for the start of the war and during the war? Allies that the United States was experiencing a labor shortage. Some businesses, seeking to remain neutral, tried to continue dealing with Germany, but this trade became increasingly risky. Shipments were often stopped by the British navy. In addition, President Wilson and oth- ers spoke out against German atrocities and warned of the threat that the German empire posed to democracy. From 1914 on, trade with the Allies quadrupled, while trade with Germany fell to near zero. Reading Check Also, by 1917 American banks had loaned $2.3 billion to the Allies, but Analyze Motives Why did the United only $27 million to the Central powers. Many U.S. leaders, including Trea- States begin to favor sury secretary William McAdoo, felt that American prosperity depended Britain and France? upon an Allied victory. The War Hits Home Although the majority of Americans favored victory for the Allies rather than the Central powers, they did not want to join the Allies’ fight. By 1917, however, America had mobilized for war against the Central powers in order to ensure Allied repayment of debts to the United States and to prevent the Germans from threatening U.S. shipping. THE BRITISH BLOCKADE As fighting on land continued, Britain began to make more use of its naval strength. It blockaded the German coast to prevent weapons and other military supplies from getting through. How- ever, the British expanded the definition of contraband to include food. They also extended the blockade to neutral ports and mined the entire North Sea. The results were twofold. First, American ships carrying goods for Ger- many refused to challenge the blockade and seldom reached their destina- tion. Second, Germany found it increasingly difficult to import foodstuff World War I 321  and fertilizers for crops. By 1917 famine stalked the country. An estimated 750,000 Germans starved to death as a result of the British blockade. Americans had been angry at Britain’s blockade. It threatened freedom of the seas and prevented American goods from reaching German ports. How- ever, Germany’s response to the blockade soon outraged Americans. GERMAN U-BOAT RESPONSE Germany responded to the British blockade with a counterblockade by U-boats (from Unterseeboot, the German word for submarine). Any British or Allied ship found in the waters around Britain would be sunk—and it would not always be possible to warn crews and pas- sengers of an attack. One of the worst disasters occurred on May 7, 1915, when a U-boat sank the British liner Lusitania (loo ´sĭ-taʹnē-ә) off the Irish coast. Of the 1,198 persons lost, 128 were Americans. The Germans defended their action on the grounds that the liner carried ammunition. Despite Germany’s explanation, Americans became outraged with Germany because of the loss of life. Ameri- can public opinion turned against Germany and the Central powers. Despite this provocation, President Wilson ruled out a military response in favor of a sharp protest to Germany. Three months later, in August 1915, a U-boat sank another British liner, the Arabic, drowning two Americans. Again the United States protested, and this time Germany agreed not to sink any more passenger ships. But in March 1916 Germany broke its promise and tor- pedoed an unarmed French passenger steamer, the Sussex. The Sussex sank, and about 80 passengers, including Americans, were killed or injured. After this attack, Wilson threatened to end diplomatic relations with Germany unless it stopped killing innocent civilians. German officials feared that the United States might enter the war, so Germany issued the Sussex pledge, which included a promise not to sink merchant vessels “without warning and without saving human lives.” But there was a condition: if the United States could not persuade Britain to lift its blockade against food and fertilizers, Germany would consider renewing unrestricted submarine warfare. This image of a U-boat crew machine-gunning helpless survivors of the Lusitania was clearly meant as propaganda. In fact, U-boats seldom lingered after an attack. 322 Module 7  Document-Based Investigation Historical Source “Peace Without Victory” After the 1916 election, President Wilson tried to mediate between the warring alliances in Europe. The attempt failed. In a later speech, the president asked the Allied and Central powers to accept a “peace without victory,” in which neither side would impose harsh terms on the other. “The treaties and agreements which bring [the war] to an end must embody terms which will create a peace that is worth guaranteeing and preserving, a peace that will win the approval of mankind, not merely a peace that will serve the several interests and immediate aims of the nations engaged.... it must be a peace without victory... Victory would mean peace forced upon the loser, a victor’s terms imposed upon the vanquished. It would be accepted in humiliation, under duress, at an intolerable sacrifice, and would leave a sting, a resentment, a bitter memory upon which terms of peace would rest, not permanently, but only as upon quicksand. Only a peace between equals can last.” —President Woodrow Wilson, from an address to the Senate, January 22, 1917 Analyze Historical Sources How does this speech reflect Wilson’s ideas about equality in a postwar world? THE 1916 ELECTION In November 1916 came the U.S. presidential elec- tion. The Democrats renominated Wilson, and the Republicans nominated Supreme Court Justice Charles Evans Hughes. Wilson campaigned on the slogan “He Kept Us Out of War.” Hughes pledged to uphold America’s right to freedom of the seas but also promised not to be too severe on Germany. Reading Check The election returns shifted from hour to hour. In fact, Hughes went to Analyze Effects bed believing he had been elected. When a reporter tried to reach him with How did the German the news of Wilson’s victory, an aide to Hughes said, “The president can’t U-boat campaign affect U.S. public be disturbed.” “Well,” replied the reporter, “when he wakes up, tell him he’s opinion? no longer president.” The United States Declares War Despite Wilson’s efforts on behalf of peace, hope seemed lost. The Allies were angered by Wilson’s request for “peace without victory.” They blamed the Central powers for starting the war and wanted them to pay for war- time damage and destruction. Germany, too, ignored Wilson’s call for peace. GERMAN PROVOCATION Germany’s leaders hoped to defeat Britain by resuming unrestricted submarine warfare. On January 31 the kaiser announced that U-boats would sink all ships in British waters—hostile or neutral—on sight. Wilson was stunned. The German decision meant that the United States would have to go to war. However, the president held back, saying that he would wait for “actual overt acts” before declaring war. World War I 323  The overt acts came. First was the Zimmermann note, a secret telegram from the German foreign minister to the German ambassador in Mexico that was intercepted and decoded by British agents. The telegram pro- posed an alliance between Mexico and Germany and promised that if war with the United States broke out, Germany would support Mexico in recov- ering “lost territory in Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.” The Germans hoped that an American war with Mexico would keep the United States out of the war in Europe. Excerpts of the telegram were printed in newspa- pers. The American public was outraged. On top of this, the Germans sank four unarmed American merchant ships, with a loss of 36 lives, further angering Americans. Background A REVOLUTION IN RUSSIA Meanwhile, events in Russia also troubled the The Bolsheviks were United States. By the end of 1915 Russia had suffered about 2.5 million led by Vladimir Ilich Lenin and Leon casualties in the fight against the Central powers and was experiencing Trotsky. massive food shortages. Blaming the Russian czar for the nation’s losses, revolutionaries ousted him in March 1917 and established a provisional government. In November, a group known as the Bolsheviks overthrew the provisional government and set up a Communist state. The new gov- ernment withdrew the Russian army from the eastern front and signed a peace agreement with the Central powers. With Russia out of the conflict, Germany was free to focus on fight- ing in the west. It looked as if Germany had a chance of winning the war. These events removed the last significant obstacle to direct U.S. involve- ment in the war. Now supporters of American entry into the war could claim that this was a war of democracies against brutal monarchies. AMERICA ACTS A light drizzle fell on Washington on April 2, 1917, as senators, representatives, ambassadors, members of the Supreme Court, and other guests crowded into the Capitol to hear President Wilson deliver his war resolution. Alliances During World War I Allies Central Powers Australia Italy Austria-Hungary Belgium Japan Bulgaria British Colonies Montenegro Germany Canada & Newfoundland New Zealand Ottoman Empire France Portugal French North Africa & Romania   French Colonies Russia Great Britain Serbia Greece South Africa India United States Although not all of the countries listed above sent troops into the war, they all joined the war on the Allied side at various times. 324 Module 7  “Property can be paid for; the lives of peaceful and innocent people cannot be. The present German submarine warfare against commerce is a warfare against mankind.... We are glad... to fight... for the ultimate peace of the world and for the liberation of its peoples.... The world must be made safe for democracy.... We have no selfish ends to serve. We desire no conquest, no dominion. We seek no indemnities.... It is a fearful thing to lead this great peace- ful people into war.... But the right is more precious than peace.” —President Woodrow Wilson, quoted in American Voices Congress passed the resolution a few days later. With the hope of neu- trality finally shattered, U.S. troops would follow the stream of American money and munitions that had been heading to the Allies throughout the Reading Check war. But Wilson’s plea to make the world “safe for democracy” wasn’t just Make Inferences political posturing. Indeed, Wilson and many Americans truly believed Why did the that the United States had to join the war to pave the way for a future Zimmermann note alarm the U.S. order of peace and freedom. A resolved but anxious nation held its breath government? as the United States prepared for war. Lesson 1 Assessment 1. Organize Information Use a web diagram to list the 4. Summarize Why were America’s ties with the Allies causes for the outbreak of World War I. stronger than its ties with the Central powers? 5. Analyze Events How did the Russian Revolution Causes of WWI change the course of the war? 6. Analyze Causes Why did the United States want to remain neutral in the conflict in Europe? What caused the shift from neutrality to involvement in the war? Which was the most significant cause? Explain your 7. Form Opinions Do you think the United States was answer. justified to enter the war? Support your answer with 2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in details from the text. the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance. 3. Analyze Issues Why do you think Germany escalated its U-boat attacks in 1917? Think About: Germany’s military buildup the effects of the British blockade Germany’s justification for unrestricted submarine warfare World War I 325  Lesson 2 The United States Joins the War One American’s Story The Big Idea Eddie Rickenbacker, famous fighter pilot of World War I, was well The United States mobilized a known as a racecar driver before the war. He went to France as a driver large army and navy to help the but transferred to the aviation division. He learned to fly on his own Allies achieve victory. time and eventually joined the U.S. Army Air Service. Rickenbacker Why It Matters Now repeatedly fought the dreaded Flying Circus—a German air squadron During World War I, the United led by the “Red Baron,” Manfred von Richthofen. States military evolved into the powerful fighting force that it remains today. “I put in six or seven hours of Key Terms and People flying time each day.... My Eddie Rickenbacker narrowest escape came at Selective Service Act a time when I was fretting convoy system over the lack of action.... American Expeditionary Force Guns began barking behind John J. Pershing me, and sizzling tracers Alvin York zipped by my head.... At least two planes were on my conscientious objector tail....They would expect armistice me to dive. Instead I twisted upward in a corkscrew path called a ‘chandelle.’ I guessed right. As I went up, my two attackers came down, near enough for me to see their faces. I also saw the World War I flying ace Eddie Rickenbacker red noses on those Fokkers [German planes]. I was up against the Flying Circus again.” —Eddie Rickenbacker, from Rickenbacker: An Autobiography After engaging in 134 air battles and downing 26 enemy aircraft, Rickenbacker won fame as the Allied pilot with the most victories— “American ace of aces.” 326 Module 7  America Mobilizes The United States was not prepared for war. Only 200,000 men were in service when war was declared, and few officers had combat experience. Drastic measures were needed to build an army large and modern enough to make an impact in Europe. RAISING AN ARMY To meet the government’s need for more fighting power, Congress passed the Selective Service Act in May 1917. The act required men to register with the government in order to be randomly selected for military service. By the end of 1918, 24 million men had registered under the act. Of this number, almost 3 million were called up. About 2 million troops reached Europe before the truce was signed, and three-fourths of them saw actual combat. Most of the inductees had not attended high school, and about one in five was foreign-born. The eight-month training period took place partly in the United States and partly in Europe. During this time, the men put in 17-hour days on target practice, bayonet drill, kitchen duty, and cleaning up the grounds. Since real weapons were in short supply, soldiers often drilled with fake weapons. They used rocks instead of hand grenades or wooden poles instead of rifles. DIVERSITY IN THE MILITARY For the United States to effectively fight the Central powers, its military needed the cooperation of its minority population. Government publications appealed to all Americans, regard- less of race or ethnicity, to support the war effort. One pamphlet reminded Americans that “... black men, yellow men, white men, from all quarters of the globe, are fighting side by side to free the world from the Hun peril. That’s the patriotism of equality!” Document-Based Investigation Historical Source Uncle Sam the Recruiter Before motion pictures and television were commonplace, the poster was an important visual medium. Easily produced and displayed, posters captured the immediate attention of the public. In an effort to increase military recruitment, the U.S. government hired artists to create posters to appeal to a sense of patriotism in young men. James Montgomery Flagg’s portrayal of a stern Uncle Sam became the most famous recruiting poster in American history. Analyze Historical Sources 1. How does the poster use patriotic symbolism? 2. How effective do you think the poster was in convincing men to fight for the Allied cause? World War I 327  Many minorities hoped that by fighting for America, they would gain respect and be treated as equal citizens to whites. One lieutenant who served in the all-black 369th Infantry Regiment explained this perspective to a reporter. “Now is the opportunity to prove what we can do. If we can’t fight and die in this war just as bravely as white men, then we do not deserve equality with white men.... But if we can do things at the front; if we can make ourselves felt; if we can make America really proud... then it will be the biggest possible step toward our equalization as citizens.” —a U.S. Army lieutenant, from The Crisis, August 1918 About 400,000 African Americans The 369th Infantry Regiment, also known as the Harlem Hell Fighters, served a record 191 days in the trenches. would ultimately serve in the armed forces. They generally did not get the equal treatment they wanted, how- Vocabulary ever. They served in segregated units and were excluded from the navy and segregated marines. Many white army officers and southern politicians objected to separated or isolated from others training African American soldiers to use weapons. They feared that these black soldiers might pose a threat after the war. Most African Americans were assigned to noncombat duties, although there were exceptions. The 369th Infantry Regiment saw more continuous duty on the front lines than any other American regiment. Two soldiers of the 369th, Henry Johnson and Needham Roberts, were the first Americans to receive France’s highest military honor, the Croix de Guerre—the “cross of war.” Native Americans were required to register for the draft, but at the time were not generally considered to be citizens. Nonetheless, an estimated 10,000 Native Americans served in the military during the war. Many did so eager to gain war honors and maintain the warrior traditions of their peoples. The army used some Choctaw Indians to transmit messages in their native language. This was a strategy that the U.S. military would use more extensively in the next world war. Other minority groups also contributed to the war effort. Like African Americans, many Asian Americans and Hispanic Americans saw military service as a way to gain equal rights. To accommodate Hispanic soldiers who did not speak fluent English, the military established programs in New Mex- ico and Georgia to help them learn the language. The Jewish Welfare Board established centers for Jewish servicemen in the United States and overseas. It also led enlistment and fundraising campaigns for the war effort. Although women were not allowed to enlist, the army reluctantly accepted women in the Army Corps of Nurses. However, it denied them army rank, 328 Module 7  pay, and benefits. Meanwhile, some 13,000 women accepted noncombat positions in the navy and marines. There they served as nurses, secretar- ies, and telephone operators with full military rank. Some French-speaking American women served in the U.S. Army Signal Corps as switchboard oper- ators. These “Hello Girls” served a crucial role by keeping communications open between the front line and the military headquarters. Some women went overseas to serve as volunteer ambulance drivers on the front lines. MASS PRODUCTION In addition to the vast army that had to be created and trained, the United States had to transport men, food, and equipment over thousands of miles of ocean. But German U-boat attacks on merchant ships in the Atlantic were a serious threat to the Allied war effort. By early 1917 German submarines had sunk twice as much ship tonnage as the Allies had built. In response, the U.S. government took several steps to expand its fleet. First, the government exempted many shipyard workers from the draft. It gave others a “deferred” classification, delay- Some shipyards were capable of building a ing their participation in the draft. Second, the U.S. Chamber of war vessel in just over five days. Commerce joined in a public relations campaign to emphasize the importance of shipyard work. They distributed service flags to fami- lies of shipyard workers, just like the flags given to families of soldiers and sailors. Finally, shipyards used prefabrication techniques. Instead of Reading Check building an entire ship in the yard, standardized parts were built elsewhere Summarize How did the United States raise and then assembled at the yard. This method reduced construction time an army for the war? substantially. The Fight “Over There” After two and a half years of fighting, the Allied forces were exhausted, demoralized, and desperate for help. The Americans were able to provide fresh troops and much-needed supplies. But first they had to turn the tide in the battle against the German U-boats. THE CONVOY SYSTEM Mass production techniques greatly increased the number of ships hauling materials and personnel to Europe. However, those ships remained easy targets for prowling U-boats. The United States needed to figure out a way to protect its transatlantic shipping. American vice- admiral William S. Sims convinced the British to try the convoy system. This method involved a heavy guard of destroyers escorting merchant ships back and forth across the Atlantic in groups. By fall of 1917 shipping losses had been cut in half. The U.S. Navy also helped lay a 230-mile barrier of mines across the North Sea from Scotland to Norway. The barrier was designed to bottle up the U-boats that sailed from German ports in order to keep them out of the Atlantic Ocean. By early 1918 the Germans found it increasingly difficult to replace their losses and to staff their fleet with trained submariners. Of the almost 2 million Americans who sailed to Europe during the war, only 637 were lost to U-boat attacks. World War I 329  World War I Convoy System cruiser safe merchant zone ships defensive boundary destroyer enemy submarine THE AMERICAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCE The first U.S. troops arrived in France in late June 1917. The American soldiers who went overseas formed the American Expeditionary Force (AEF), which was led by General John J. Pershing. The AEF included soldiers from the regular army, the National Guard, and a new larger force of volunteers and draftees. The men came from all over the country. Many had never traveled much beyond the farms or small towns where they lived. These American infantrymen were nicknamed doughboys, possibly because of the white belts they wore, which they cleaned with pipe clay, or “dough.” One of the main contributions that American troops made to the Allied war effort, besides their numbers, was their freshness and enthusiasm. They were determined to hit the Germans hard. Twenty-two-year-old Joseph Douglas Law- rence was a U.S. Army lieutenant. He remarked on the importance of the Ameri- can soldier’s enthusiasm when he described his first impression of the trenches. BIOGRAPHY John J. Pershing (1860–1948) General Pershing was the commander of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) in France. When he arrived there, he found that the Allies intended to use American troops simply as reinforcements. Pershing, however, urged that the AEF operate as an independent fighting force, Pershing believed in aggressive combat. He felt under American command. He refused to have that three years of trench warfare had made the the AEF “scattered among the Allied forces where Allies too defensive. Under Pershing, American it will not be an American army at all.” Pershing forces captured important enemy positions and also wanted to give his troops more training. He helped stop the German advance. After the war, believed that sending inexperienced soldiers into Pershing was made General of the Armies of the battle was the same as sending them to die. As a United States. This was the highest rank an army result, Pershing sent his troops to training camps officer could achieve. Many of Pershing’s tactics in eastern France. would be used by the military in future wars. 330 Module 7  “I have never seen or heard of such an elaborate, complete line of defense as the British had built at this point. There was a trench with dugouts every three hundred yards from the front line in Ypres back four miles to and including Dirty Bucket. Everything was fronted with barbed wire and other entangle- ments. Artillery was concealed everywhere. Railroad tracks, narrow and standard gauge, reached from the trenches back into the zone of supply. Nothing had been neglected to hold this line, save only one important thing, enthusiasm among the troops, and that was the purpose of our presence.” —Joseph D. Lawrence, quoted in Fighting Soldier: The AEF in 1918 Lieutenant Joseph D. A NEW KIND OF WAR Even the enthusiasm of the American doughboys Lawrence often turned to shock upon experiencing the horrors of the European fronts. An American nurse named Florence Bullard described the deadly toll of modern warfare as she cared for soldiers in a hospital near the front in 1918. “The Army is only twelve miles away from us and only the wounded that are too severely injured to live to be carried a lit- tle farther are brought here.... Side by side I have Americans, English, Scotch, Irish, and French, and apart in the corners are Boche [Germans]. They have to watch each other die side by side. I am sent for everywhere—in the... operating-room, the dressing- room, and back again to the rows of men.... The cannon goes day and night and the shells are breaking over and around us.... I have had to write many sad letters to American mothers. I wonder if it will ever end.” —Florence Bullard, quoted in Over There: The Story of America’s First Great Overseas Crusade Not only did World War I see the use of trench warfare, but it saw the first large-scale use of weapons that would become standard in modern war. Although some of these weapons were new, others, like the machine gun, had been so refined that they changed the nature of warfare. The new guns could hit targets that were miles away. And capable of firing 600 rounds a minute, machine guns could inflict heavy casualties on the enemy. In fact, they were responsible for 90 percent of Allied casualties at the Battle of the Somme in 1916. The two most innovative weapons were the tank and the airplane. Together, they heralded mechanized warfare, or warfare that relies on machines powered by gasoline and diesel engines. Tanks ran on caterpil- lar treads and were built of steel so that bullets bounced off. The British first used tanks at Somme, but not very effectively. By 1917 the British had learned how to drive large numbers of tanks through barbed-wire defenses, clearing a path for the infantry. Because tanks were not damaged by either machine-gun or rifle fire, their use would mark the eventual end of trench warfare. World War I 331  When the United States entered the war, its air power was weak. Con- gress eventually appropriated $675 million to build an air force. The early airplanes were so flimsy that at first both sides limited their use to scout- ing. After a while, the two sides used tanks to fire at enemy planes that were gathering information. Early dogfights, or individual air combats, like the one described by Eddie Rickenbacker, resembled duels. Pilots sat in their open cockpits and shot at each other with pistols. Because it was hard to fly a plane and shoot a pistol at the same time, planes began carrying mounted machine guns. But the planes’ propeller blades kept getting in the way of the bullets. Then the Germans introduced an interrupter gear, which permitted the stream of bullets to avoid the whirring blades. Meanwhile, airplanes were built to travel faster and carry heavy bomb loads. By 1918 the British had built up a strategic bomber force of 22,000 planes. This force attacked German weapons factories and army bases. Technology at War Both sides in World War I used new technology to attack more soldiers from greater distances than ever before. Aircraft and long-range guns were even used to fire on civilian targets. These included libraries, cathedrals, and city districts. The biggest guns could shell a city from 75 miles away. MACHINE GUNS Firepower increased to 600 rounds per minute. TANKS Tanks, like this French light tank, were used to “mow down” barbed wire and soldiers. AIRSHIPS AND AIRPLANES The most famous World War I plane was the British Sopwith Camel. It had a front-mounted machine gun for “dogfights.” Planes were also loaded with bombs, as were the floating gas- filled “airships” called zeppelins. POISON GAS The yellow-green fog of chlorine sickened, suffocated, SHIPS burned, and blinded Even with the advantages of firepower and entrenched soldiers. Gas masks speed, dreadnoughts still faced threats became standard issue. from torpedo ships. 332 Module 7  The Allies and the Central powers also poured valuable resources into building a new type of battleship called a dreadnought. These ships were more heavily armed than any other battleship. They also featured a revolu- tionary steam turbine propulsion system that gave them speed. Observation balloons were widely used by both sides in the war in Europe. Balloons were so important strategically that they were often pro- tected by aircraft. They became prime targets for Rickenbacker and other ace pilots. Armies also used chemical warfare during World War I. Slow-moving Reading Check clouds of poison gas could reach soldiers sheltered in the deepest of Form Generalizations trenches. Toxic tear gas, mustard gas, chlorine, and phosgene were all used How did World War I change the nature of to deadly effect. This led some historians to call World War I the “chemists’ warfare? war.” Today the use of poison gas is a war crime. American Troops Go on the Offensive When Russia pulled out of the war in 1917, the Germans shifted their armies from the eastern front to the western front in France. By May they were within 50 miles of Paris. The Americans arrived just in time to help stop the German advance at Cantigny. Several weeks later, U.S. troops played a major role in throwing back German attacks at Château-Thierry and Belleau Wood. Explore ONLINE! Allied Victories, 1917–1918 5°E North Sea Allied powers Central powers G R E A T B R I T A I N MapQuest.Com, Inc. N Neutral countries Ypres, 3rd battle, July–Nov. McDougal-Littel, 1917 German offensive, American History Program el n NETHERLANDS W Mar.–July 1918 Allied victory costs over half a an arpe-0311s2-15-e Ch E Armistice line, 50°N million casualties. Allied Victories 1917-1918 - Locator Trim size 8 picas wide X 4 picas deep S Nov. 11, 1918 5°W 6th Proof date: 5/21/01 Battle Cantigny, May 1918 U.S. E n glish Brussels troops fill gaps between Lille Rhi Arras 0 50 100 mi BELGIUM Cologne ne French and British lines So se Meu G E R M A N Y mm during German offensive. e 0 50 100 km e Laon ell Compiègne Sedan os M Aisne LUXEMBOURG Meuse-Argonne, Se e Ois ine Sept.–Nov. 1918 American Château-Thierry, June 1918 Paris advance helps end the war. AUSTRIA– U.S. troops help stop the M Metz HUNGARY arn German advance on Paris. e ARGONNE FOREST St. Mihiel, Sept. 1918 Pershing F R A N C E leads American army to victory. se Meu Interpret Maps Marne, 2nd battle, July–Aug. 1918 1. Location Did the Germans achieve their The turning point of the war. Allies advance goal of capturing Paris in their March 1918 steadily after defeating the Germans. offensive? Why or why not? 45°N 2. Place What geographical feature of SWITZERLAND northern France made it particularly well suited to trench warfare? World War I 333  On July 15, 1918, the Germans launched a last, desperate offensive at the Second Battle of the Marne. The German army suffered some 150,000 casu- alties and retreated on August 3. The Allies led a counterattack in Septem- ber. The AEF defeated German troops at Mihiel, near the French-German border. The Allies continued their advance toward the French city of Sedan. The railway there was the main supply line of German forces. For more than a month, the Allies pushed northward through the rugged Argonne Forest, facing artillery fire and deadly explosions every step of the way. The Ameri- cans suffered some 120,000 casualties in the Battle of the Argonne Forest, but by November they had occupied the hills around Sedan. AMERICAN WAR HERO During the fighting in the Meuse- Argonne area, one of America’s greatest war heroes, Alvin York, became famous. York sought exemption as a conscientious objector, a person who opposes warfare on moral grounds, pointing out that the Bible says, “Thou shalt not kill.” York eventually decided that it was morally acceptable to fight if the cause was just. On October 8, 1918, armed only with a rifle and a revolver, York killed 25 Germans and—with 6 other doughboys—captured 132 prisoners. General Pershing