Native American Foods: History, Culture & Influence on Modern Diets PDF

J Ethn Foods 3 (2016) 171e177 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Ethnic Foods journ...

J Ethn Foods 3 (2016) 171e177 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Ethnic Foods journal homepage: http://journalofethnicfoods.net Original article Native American foods: History, culture, and influence on modern diets Sunmin Park a, Nobuko Hongu b, James W. Daily III c, * a Department of Food and Nutrition, Hoseo Universtiy, Asan, South Korea b Department Nutritional Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA c Department of Research and Development, Daily Manufacturing Inc., Rockwell, NC, USA a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t Article history: Approximately 12,000e15,000 years ago people from northeast Asia crossed the Bering Land Bridge to Received 24 July 2016 enter and inhabit North America beginning in Alaska but rapidly spreading throughout North and South Received in revised form American and the Caribbean islands. These people rapidly adapted to the available food sources and soon 29 July 2016 developed new foods. It is estimated that about 60% of the current world food supply originated in North Accepted 30 July 2016 Available online 12 August 2016 America. When Europeans arrived, the Native Americans had already developed new varieties of corn, beans, and squashes and had an abundant supply of nutritious food. The foods of the Native Americans are widely consumed and their culinary skills still enrich the diets of nearly all people of the world today. Keywords: American Indian This article provides only a small sampling of the rich and highly varied Native American food culture beans that has been passed down to modern civilization. corn © 2016 Korea Food Research Institute. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the Native American CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). squash 1. Introduction consumed worldwide originated from the New World. How- ever, the introduction of food from Europe and Asia also changed When Christopher Columbus first sailed into the Bahama ar- the diets of the Native American people. Today, few if any of the chipelago he believed that he had reached Asiadthus the name descendants of the early Native American tribes eat diets that Indian for the Native Americans. However, it soon became clear that closely resemble those of their ancestors, although many indige- he had entered a New World previously unknown to Europeans nous foods are still eaten and Native American foods have been with unfamiliar new people, flora, and fauna. Probably the greatest incorporated into the cuisines of almost the entire world. Here we impact on Old World culture was the rapid introduction of New describe the diets and dietary culture of the indigenous North World ornamental and food plants. Soon orchids from the tropical American inhabitants, and discuss the nutritional quality of those rainforests of Central and South America were highly sought after diets and the contributions they make to the diets of all people. additions to the greenhouse collections of wealthy Europeans. Christopher Columbus had sailed to the Caribbean region in search of a route for obtaining spices. However, what he found was not 2. The origins of Native Americans and their food the cinnamon and cloves he sought, but Jamaican allspice [2,3], the dried unripe berries of Pimenta dolce, and chili and other peppers of It is commonly believed that the first Native Americans crossed the genus Capsicum. It was not long until the new foods from the from the Old World into the New World across the Bering Land Americas were introduced around the world and corn, potatoes, Bridge that joined Siberia to Alaska at least 15,000 years ago , new varieties of beans and squashes, peppers and tomatoes, and but disappeared shortly thereafter. Although the passage of time many other foods were rapidly accepted into the cuisines of the renders it impossible to know for certain how, when, or why the entire world (Table 1) [2e16]. Now, approximately 60% of the food Asian ancestors of the Native Americans first appeared in North America, it seems apparent that they either brought no animal or plant foods with them, or that none survived. By the time Chris- * Corresponding author. Department of Research and Development, Daily topher Columbus first entered the New World, the Native Ameri- Manufacturing Inc., 4820 Pless Rd., Rockwell, NC, USA. cans were relying on foods that were indigenous to the region, E-mail address: [email protected] (J.W. Daily). although many had been improved by hybridization or selection. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2016.08.001 2352-6181/© 2016 Korea Food Research Institute. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). 172 J Ethn Foods 2016; 3: 171e177 Table 1 Common foods that Originated in the Americas.* Name of food [Ref.] Region of origin How prepared Major nutrients provided Vegetables Casava Brazil Cooked vegetable or bread Carbohydrate Chili & bell peppers Central America Cooked, raw, or seasoning Vitamin C, flavonoids Jerusalem Artichoke North America Raw or cooked Probiotic fiber, minerals, B vitamins Lima Beans South America Cooked Protein, B vitamins, minerals Pole Beans: black turtle, pinto, Probably originated in South America Cooked & used in breads Protein, minerals, B vitamins, fiber navy, kidney, & cranberry beans but possibly North & South America Potatoes Peru Cooked & baked Carbohydrate, potassium Pumpkin North America Cooked Vitamins A & C Squash varieties North America Cooked Variable Sweet Potatoes South & Central America Cooked Vitamin A, folate, minerals Tomatoes South & Central America Raw & cooked Vitamins A, C, K, potassium, lycopene Fruits Avocado Mexico Raw & sauces Essential fats, B vitamins & A, E, K, & potassium Black raspberry North America Raw, cooked, juice Vitamin C, anthocyanins, ellagic acid, manganese Blueberry North America Raw, cooked Vitamins C & K, manganese, anthocyanins Cacao, chocolate Central America & Mexico Prepared as chocolate B vitamins, minerals, polyphenols Cranberry Northern North America Cooked, medicinal herb Vitamins A, E, & K Guava Mexico to Northern South America Raw, cooked, juice Very high in Vitamin C, & lycopene Papaya Mexico to South America Raw, cooked Vitamins A, E, & K, potassium, lycopene Pineapple South America Raw, cooked Vitamin C, folate Strawberry Eastern North America Raw Vitamin C, fiber, minerals Grains Amaranth Mexico Baked breads & cooked B vitamins, protein, minerals Corn Mexico, Central America Cooked as vegetable & grain, Protein, B vitamins, fiber, magnesium, potassium baked & fried grain breads Quinoa South America, Andes Cooked cereal Protein, B vitamins, fiber, minerals Wild Rice North America Cooked cereal Protein, B vitamins, minerals Nuts & seeds Black Walnut Eastern North America Raw, cooked, Protein, B vitamins, fiber, minerals, medicinal extracts essential fatty acids Cashew Brazil Eaten semi-raw or cooked Protein, minerals, B vitamins, Peanut Argentina Raw, cooked, roasted Protein, B vitamins, fatty acids, vitamin E, minerals Pecan Southern USA, Mexico Raw, cooked, baked Protein, fatty acids, B & E vitamins, minerals Sunflower North (most species) & South America Raw, cooked, roasted Fatty acids, protein, B & E vitamins, minerals Meats Bison (Buffalo) North America Cooked Protein, B vitamins, iron Turkey North America Cooked Protein, B vitamins, minerals Sugar & spices Allspice Caribbean, Mexico, Central America Seasoning Maple Syrup Northeastern USA Sweetener Sugar, minerals Vanilla Mexico, Central America Flavoring * Data in the table were obtained from numerous references [2e16]. This is not a comprehensive list of foods consumed by Native Americans, but a list the major foods that originated in the Americas and are still commonly consumed by people throughout the world. Those foods became important to the entire world, as Samuel Beck megafauna including mastodons and giant ground sloths were an said: “The American Indian's greatest contribution to our civiliza- important part of the diet [15,24]. However, their extinction an tion is, in the eyes of many experts, the patient cultivation from estimated 10,000e12,000 years ago is believed to have resulted in their original wild state of the food plants which are now more than major changes to the flora and fauna of North America. This may half of our agricultural wealth”. have resulted in the transition of many Native American tribes to at There were numerous regional tribes with distinct diets, cus- least a partial reliance on agriculture as a means of obtaining a toms, and languages throughout the Americas (Fig. 1), but many of stable food supply. Whether the disappearance of the approxi- the foods spread among the regions due to well-organized trade mately 60 species of megafauna at that time was the result of hu- routes that were facilitated in part by a common hand sign lan- man activity or rapid climate change that occurred during that guage used by many tribes. Of the staple foods in North period is still unknown [17,24,25]. Although the early food sources America known as the three sisters only squash was of North are difficult to identify with certainty, it is almost certain that American origin. Corn and beans probably originated in South virtually all possible plants and animals were used as foods. One of America, but their use spread throughout North and South America. the best early records of Native American customs and culture was As is obvious from Table 1, the wealth of foods in North America published by James Adair, who spent much time from 1735 until made possible a balanced and highly palatable diet. Many of the around 1770 working and living with the natives of the area that is berries that are popular today for their functional properties were now the southeastern USA. In his book, James Adair describes also valuable additions to the Native American diet; they would the hunting of deer and bear, and the methods of fishing. The main include phytochemical-rich blueberries, elderberries, chokeberries, staple food he mentioned was corn, which was often mixed with black raspberries, blackberries, serviceberries, buffalo berries, and beans and chestnuts and baked to make a corn bread (Fig. 2). We cranberries [22,23]. Animal foods were also a major part of the know from other sources that small game, turtles, turkeys, and Native American diet. When humans first arrived in North America grouse were also commonly eaten by the Eastern Native Americans they appear to have been predominantly hunter-gatherers and. Of course, the exact makeup of the Native American diet  S. Park et al / Native American foods 173 Fig. 1. Map of USA depicting the location of major Native American tribes. Asians first entered North America by crossing from Siberia into Alaska using the Bering land bridge, but soon spread throughout the Americas. This map shows some of the larger and better known tribes of the USA. important food of the Native American tribes of the western Great Plains, and is one of the few large mammals used for food by the early Clovis people that avoided extinction. 3. Food collection: hunting, gathering, agriculture The early Native Americans were all hunter/gatherers, living off the abundance of plants and animals they found nearby. Because they remained a largely stone age culture until Europeans arrived with metal tools, very little remains of most of the early cultures other than stone tools, pottery shards, and occasional bone frag- ments from butchered animals. Most of their tools and dwellings were made of perishable materials such as reeds for baskets, wood, animal skins, and vines. Almost all had decomposed before becoming available to archeologists. Much of what we know about the Native Americans we have learned from the Europeans who first Fig. 2. Varieties of Native American corn and beans. The Native Americans developed a wide variety of foods by selective breeding and probably hybridization. Corn was arrived and passed down records of their encounters with various available as white, yellow, red, and blue varieties. Corn, beans, and squash provided a tribes. Of course, at that time the culture was already thousands of stable food supply that was augmented by hunting, fishing, and gathering of wild years old, and had undoubtedly undergone many changes. What we foods. Note. Photo by Zachary Young, photo rights purchased from dreamstime.com do know is that they had adapted very well to their environment and (Fig. 2 © Zachary Young 2007). were thriving as was described by an eyewitness, James Adair: “They (the native Americans) are acquainted with a great many herbs and depended to a large extent on the indigenous plants and animals in roots, of which the general part of the English has not the least the area where they lived. For instance, saw palmetto berries were a knowledge. If an Indian were driven out into the extensive woods, unique common food of the Florida tribes, desert tribes used the with only a knife and a tomahawk, or small hatchet, it is not to be fruit and leaves of the prickly pear cactus, and bison was an doubted but he would fatten, even if a wolf would starve. He could 174 J Ethn Foods 2016; 3: 171e177 soon start a fire, by rubbing two dry pieces of wood together, make a their gardens into sections of just one plant as is typical on today's bark hut, make earthen vessels, and a bow and arrow; then kill wild farms, but used companion planting in rows of mounds about game, fish, fresh water turtles, gather a plentiful variety of vegetables 30 cm high in which they would plant the corn, beans, and squash and live in affluence”. or other garden plants together [29,30]. Between the mounds were troughs that were made by digging the soil to make the mounds, 3.1. Agriculture these troughs served as reservoirs to collect water for the garden. The system of agriculture developed by the Native Americans The three sisters (corn, beans, and squash) were the major sta- would not be practical for use with modern tractors and harvesting ples of Native American agriculture, and were always grown equipment, but was highly efficient for use in gardens prepared and together. Corn was the most important staple food grown by Native harvested by hand. Americans, but corn stalks also provided a pole for beans to climb and the shade from the corn benefited squash that grew under the 3.2. Hunting leaves. The beans, as with all legumes, provided nitrogen for the corn and squash. Finally, the shade from large squash and pumpkin Most people think of American Indians as relying on the bow leaves held moisture in the ground for all three plants. Although and arrow for hunting and warfare. Indeed, that was the weapon of other plants such as potatoes, tomatoes, and peppers were culti- choice when the Europeans first arrived. However, the bow and vated, the three sisters gardens were the backbone of North Amer- arrow had only been in use for about 1,000 years at that time. ican Indian agriculture and provided the primary dietary staples of Spears were the first tools we are aware of, and their exact methods many tribes, and horticulture remains an important part of modern of construction are not known since the stone points are all that Native American life (Fig. 3). Early Native Americans did not divide remain since the shafts and other organic parts of them Fig. 3. Native American gardens. Farming and gardening remains an important part of many Native American cultures, and corn and beans are still important foods to the modern descendants of early Native Americans. These pictures depict Native American farmers still cultivating the same foods as grown for thousands of years by their ancestors. (A) Dora Mariano's field of beans and corn. (B) Dora Mariano picking green pinto beans. (C) Lola Lopez picking corn. All were taken at Meneger's Dam Village, Tohono O'odham Reservation, November 1977. Note. Photo by Helga Teiwes (Arizona State Museum, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA). Pictures are published with the kind permission of Arizona State Museum, University of Arizona. (Fig. 3 © Helga Teiwes 1977).  S. Park et al / Native American foods 175 decomposed over time. The atlatl was also developed early in Table 2 Native American history, or may have been brought with them Recipes of Native American foods. when they first arrived from Asia. The atlatl is a sling-like device to Components Substitutes assist in throwing a spear to give it more power and distance. Recipe 1. Succotash Finally, the bow and arrow were developed in the Americas, 2 cups fresh corn 2 cans of corn apparently independent of outside influence, although the bow and 2 cups fresh beans 2 cans of lima beans arrow were first developed in Alaska, suggesting some possibility 1 tablespoon Fat 1 tablespoon of butter Optional that there was contact with Asians at that time, and the knowledge Chopped wild or green onions, tomatoes, garlic cloves, peppers, juniper berries, of crafting bows and arrows may have been learned from others fish, or meat. cultures. By the time Europeans arrived bows and arrows were the Mix all ingredients in a pot & bring to a boil over a campfire or on a stove. weapons of choice, although spears and atlatls were still in use. The Recipe 2. Bean bread 2 cups yellow corn meal White or blue corn atlatl was a more powerful weapon, but less accurate, and may have 1 cup cooked pinto beans Any beans or peas been more effective for hunting the early megafauna such as 1 teaspoon baking powder mastodons. The bow and arrow were well suited for hunting deer, 1 teaspoon of salt antelope, turkey, and most of the other animals used for food. 6 beaten quail eggs 2 chicken eggs Mix all dry ingredients in a bowl. Add beans with broth & beaten eggs & stir until well mixed. If more liquid is needed to make a soft dough, a little clean 3.3. Fishing spring water can be added if needed. Heat a flat rock by the campfire or skillet on a stove at home & cover with bear grease or a vegetable oil at home & press Fishing appears to have been a major source of food for the down the dough to make a flat bread. Allow to cook well without burning. It majority of Native Americans. Most Indian villages were located should be able to stick a knife into the bread & remove it & not see any uncooked close to rivers or large streams where there was a dependable water batter on the knife. Recipe 3. Fry bread supply, fish, and water fowl. James Adair described the importance 3 cups white flour of water to most of the tribes: “Except the Choctaw, all of our In- 2 teaspoons of baking powder dians, both male and female, above the late infancy, are in the 1 teaspoon of salt watery element nearly equal to amphibious animals, by practice…” 1 tablespoon of animal fat or shortening 1½ cups of warm water. He also described some of the fishing methods that impressed Mix dry ingredients then add fat & cut in & finally add water gradually & mix to him the most, such as wrapping one's hand with a cloth and putting form a soft dough. Divide into balls of dough & allow to rise for about 20 min. it into underwater holes where catfish waited and would swallow Deep fry in bear fat or other oil. Carefully remove the fry bread when it is a their hand, allowing the Indian fisherman to pull the catfish onto golden brown color. the bank of the river or stream. Probably the most common fishing Recipe 4. Acorn squash 1 acorn squash method employed by most native Americans was using a spear to 2 tablespoon maple syrup Honey gig the fish, but also nets fashioned from vines, traps, and fish hooks 2 tablespoons walnuts Pecans made from bone were used. A novel fishing method was using Raspberries & blueberries Dried fruit ground black walnut hull to spread into pools, which would Cut acorn squash in half, bake face down or covered in a hot oven until soft (about 1 h). Divide the maple syrup, nuts, & berries between the 2 halves & temporarily stun the fish and cause them to float to the surface serve. where they could easily be captured. Although it is not a part of Recipe 5. Fish & corn mush the popular lore of Indian culture as is hunting, fish appear to have 2 mediums sized fish cooked on a stick been an important part of the early Native American diet. 1 cup corn meal Pinch of lye or soda Pinch of salt 4. Food preparation Place finely chopped fish in a pot, cover with water, & boil until a thick soup is formed. In another pot place corn meal with 3 times as much water, add lye & It is important to keep in mind that many Native Americans salt & cook until a thick liquid. Serve together as a meal. were largely hunter/gatherers until the Europeans arrived. Recipe 6. Baked beans 2 cups dried beans 2 cans of beans Although many Native American tribes had well-developed agri- ¼ cup maple syrup honey, sugar culture, they did not have domesticated animals, and they still 1 chopped onion depended heavily on the wild plants and animals for food. Also, 1 cup cubed venison Bacon, ham, beef James Adair mentioned that the Indians did not use any kind of 1 teaspoon salt milk, he also stated that “None of the Indians however eat any kind Optional ingredients: peppers, root vegetables, & fish. Cook beans until well done, add other ingredients & place in a covered dish to bake of raw salads, they reckon such food is only fit for brutes”. by a campfire or in a stove at medium heat for at least 1 h. Berries and fruits were eaten raw, but most other foods were cooked. James Adair was impressed with the culinary skills of the Native American women and said: “It is surprising to see the great variety of dishes they can make out of wild flesh, corn beans, peas usually just corn flour boiled in water. It could be eaten as a soup or potatoes, pumpkins, dried fruits, herbs and roots. They can diversify drunk as a hot beverage. Cornbread was also a very common food their courses, as much as the English, or perhaps French cooks: and among all Native Americans and could be thin flat breads such either of the ways they dress their food, it is grateful to a whole- as tortillas or thick breads more like modern cornbread or pancakes some stomach”. made from corn. Interestingly, all major varieties of corn (red, blue, Cooking methods included baking, frying, deep frying, boiling, white, yellow) that are available today were already available to the and roasting over an open fire. Corn was used in a variety of ways; Native Americans when the Europeans first arrived in the New succotash was a simple corn and beans dish with almost unlimited World. Another way corn and beans were frequently combined was variations. A simple recipe is shown in Recipe 1 in Table 2 to make bean bread which is a corn bread with beans (Recipe 2 (Fig. 4A) with a picture of the dish. This was a wonderful food in Table 2, Fig. 4B). Bean bread is easy to make and, like most Native that could provide a balanced meal alone, with the corn and beans American recipes, the ingredients and cooking methods can be providing a complete protein. Corn was also cooked as a porridge varied according to what is available as long as the basic cornmeal known as sofkee by the Seminole tribes in Florida. It was and some kinds of beans are available. Cooking methods could also 176 J Ethn Foods 2016; 3: 171e177 Fig. 4. Native American Foods prepared according to the recipes included in this article. (A) Succotash is based on boiled sweet corn and beans, and is still a popular food in the Southern USA. (B) Bean bread is corn bread with beans and can be quickly prepared to make a highly nutritious meal or side dish. (C) Fry bread is a signature food of many contemporary Native Americans. It was developed out of hardship when tribes were forcibly relocated and provided little food other than flour and lard. (D) Baked acorn squash. Squashes could be prepared many ways, and baking was one of the more popular. Other local foods could be combined to make highly palatable and nutritious main dish as show here. (E) The Cherokee tradition of eating fish and corn mush, especially when sick, was a simple yet nourishing way to have a simple and easily digested meal. (F) Baked beans, are a commonly eaten food by many people today, and can include many other ingredients, just as was common among the early Native Americans. be varied, it could be baked, pan fried, or even deep fried. Fry bread shown in Recipe 6 in Table 2 (Fig 4F). Of course, what we have is a very popular food of most modern North American Indians, provided here is a small sampling of foods that would have been partly because it is a symbol of their ability to survive under eaten by Native Americans. Acorns were also used to make bread adverse conditions of being forcibly removed from their homes to and dumplings. For some Native Americans, acorns were an live in new areas where they were unfamiliar with the local foods. important part of the diet although they required extensive The fry bread was what they survived on by using rations provided washing with hot water to remove the tannins. There is no single by their white oppressors who forced them to relocate to new areas Native American diet. The diets of different tribes varied consid- and live on reservations. Fry bread is easily prepared from simple, erably, according to the foods available in their region. There are but not very nutritious, ingredients. A recipe for fry bread is currently 567 officially recognized Indian tribes in the USA. Each shown in recipe 3 in Table 2 (Fig. 4C). Squash is the third of the three had their own language and food preferences, making it impossible sisters and was also a major food, although not as ubiquitous in the provide details about every tribe. However, each tribe appears to diet as corn. Many varieties of squash and pumpkins were available have adapted well to the region in which they lived and were able to Native Americans including summer squashes such as the yellow to obtain a wide variety of nutritious foods. crookneck squash and hard squashes such as pumpkins, acorn, and butternut squashes. The hard, fall squashes could be stored and 5. Native American dishes that are still eaten today used as fresh vegetables in the winter. Squashes could be prepared by cutting into chunks and baking, adding to soups and stews, or Holiday foods in the USA (Thanksgiving and Christmas espe- baked whole as in the recipe for baked acorn squash (Recipe 4 in cially) traditionally include turkey, cranberry sauce, pumpkin pie, Table 2, Fig. 4D). There were also many ways to prepare meat and baked beans, and mashed potatoes, all of which originate from fish. The most common and simple method was to cook them Native Americans. The original Thanksgiving feast in the year 1621 skewered over a fire. A simple way to cook fish was to clean fish, salt was a gathering of English colonists and local Indians. The records fillets, and let them stand overnight. The next day they would be reveal that the feast which lasted several days included deer, water strung on a stick and roasted over a fire with frequent turning until fowl, turkeys, shellfish, eels, squash, corn, and beans. Other evenly cooked. Fish could also be fried in a pan, but would not taste foods were probably eaten as well; chestnuts would have been as good without the smoke flavor from the fire. Fish, birds, and available as would some berries. However, what is known for sure meats could be cooked as soups, stews, and stir-fry with vegetables. is that most of the traditional Thanksgiving foods of today were The stir fry would be much like fajitas, a popular Mexican food, available at that time even if they were not a part of that first which consists of vegetables such as peppers and onions, cooked Thanksgiving meal almost 400 years ago. with strips of meat and served on a flat corn bread. Fish was Foods of the American South are greatly influenced by Native popularly prepared as a soup and served with corn mush (Recipe 5 Americans: grits, cornmeal mush, cornbread, succotash, and fried in Table 2, Fig 4E) and was especially fed to sick people as a green tomatoes are all uniquely southern but with Native American nutritious and easily digestible meal. A simple menu for origins. Some people in the South still hunt raccoons, opossums, Cherokee fish and corn mush is shown in Recipe 5. Baked beans are and squirrels, as did the Native Americans. Of course venison, deer a Native American food that has withstood the test of time to be a meat, was and still is eaten throughout North America. It is popular food in many parts of the world. Baked beans like most hard to imagine American breakfast foods without pancakes and Indian recipes have many variations, but a basic recipe using in- maple syrup. James Adair described the local Indians tapping gredients that would have been available to Native Americans is maple trees to obtain the sap, which would be concentrated by  S. Park et al / Native American foods 177 boiling to make a syrup. Southwestern and Mexican foods are also Moltke I, Metspalu M, Homburger JR, Wall J, Cornejo OE, Moreno-Mayar JV, Korneliussen TS, Pierre T, Rasmussen M, Campos PF, Damgaard Pde B, heavily influenced by Native Americans. Nopal (prickly pear cactus) Allentoft ME, Lindo J, Metspalu E, Rodríguez-Varela R, Mansilla J, leaves are frequently included in Mexican cooked vegetables, but Henrickson C, Seguin-Orlando A, Malmstro € m H, Stafford Jr T, Shringarpure SS, were first consumed by the Indians. Corn tortillas are a thin fried Moreno-Estrada A, Karmin M, Tambets K, Bergstro €m A, Xue Y, Warmuth V, corn bread used to make tacos and enchiladas, which are commonly Friend AD, Singarayer J, Valdes P, Balloux F, Leboreiro I, Vera JL, Rangel- Villalobos H, Pettener D, Luiselli D, Davis LG, Heyer E, Zollikofer CP, Ponce de filled with beans and meat. In what is widely known as the Leo
n MS, Smith CI, Grimes V, Pike KA, Deal M, Fuller BT, Arriaza B, Standen V, Columbia Exchange , the foods of the Native Americans spread Luz MF, Ricaut F, Guidon N, Osipova L, Voevoda MI, Posukh OL, Balanovsky O, throughout the world, and the foods of the rest of the World were Lavryashina M, Bogunov Y, Khusnutdinova E, Gubina M, Balanovska E, Fedorova S, Litvinov S, Malyarchuk B, Derenko M, Mosher MJ, Archer D, introduced to the Native Americans. Cybulski J, Petzelt B, Mitchell J, Worl R, Norman PJ, Parham P, Kemp BM, This account of North American aboriginal foods is limited in its Kivisild T, Tyler-Smith C, Sandhu MS, Crawford M, Villems R, Smith DG, ability to convey the full scope of foods and food cultures that were Waters MR, Goebel T, Johnson JR, Malhi RS, Jakobsson M, Meltzer DJ, Manica A, Durbin R, Bustamante CD, Song YS, Nielsen R and Willerslev E. developed by Native Americans. 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