Exercise Psychology PDF

Exercise Psychology SPORT PSYCHOLOGY Tomato Effect and Exercise The tomato effect in medicine occurs when an efficacious treatment for a certain disease is ignored or rejected because it does not ‘make sense’ in light of the accepted theories of disease mechanism and drug interaction The rejection...

Exercise Psychology SPORT PSYCHOLOGY Tomato Effect and Exercise The tomato effect in medicine occurs when an efficacious treatment for a certain disease is ignored or rejected because it does not ‘make sense’ in light of the accepted theories of disease mechanism and drug interaction The rejection of potentially effective treatments because “everyone knows it won’t work” is named for Americans’ persistent belief – from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries – that tomatoes were poisonous Tomato Effect and Exercise Exercise was not a trend in the past just like today wherein many individuals sign up for gym membership and are more aware about their physical well-being Fitness, as we know it today, have vaguely started during the 70s as jogging and Jazzercise Tomato Effect and Exercise Research have shown that every system in our body benefits when a person engages in physical activity In fact, regular physical activity is likely the single best prescription that people of all ages can take for a host of health benefits Regular exercise is one of the cornerstones of a therapeutic lifestyle change for producing optimal Importance of Exercise Last 2009, World Health Organization has cited physical inactivity as one of the five leading global risk factors for mortality The five leading global risks for mortality are high blood pressure, tobacco use, high blood glucose, physical inactivity, and overweight and obesity Exercise Psychology It is a subfield of psychology that focuses on the study of how psychological factors impact exercise, physical activity, and sports performance It seeks to understand the mental processes, behaviors, and attitudes that influence individuals' participation in physical activities, their performance in sports, and their overall well-being related to exercise Exercise Psychology Exercise psychology is a multidisciplinary field that draws on principles from psychology, kinesiology, and other related disciplines Professionals in this field may work with athletes, individuals seeking to improve their fitness, and people with various health conditions They often use psychological techniques and interventions to help individuals achieve their physical activity and performance goals while enhancing their mental well-being Do People Know the Benefits of Physical Activity? To answer the question, the following issues must be mentioned: Yes, physical activity is an efficacious therapy Yes, people either ignore or reject physical activity Yes, people know the benefits of physical activity Benefits of Physical Activity Age Group Benefits Motor development: Physical activity promotes the development of motor skills such as crawling, walking, and running Cognitive development: It can enhance Infants and Toddlers cognitive development and problem- solving skills Social interaction: Physical play helps infants and toddlers interact with others Benefits of Physical Activity Age Group Benefits Healthy growth: Regular physical activity supports healthy growth and development Improved fitness: It enhances cardiovascular health, muscle strength, and flexibility Weight management: Physical activity helps Children (Ages 6-17) maintain a healthy body weight and reduce the risk of childhood obesity Academic performance: Studies suggest that physical activity can improve concentration and academic performance Benefits of Physical Activity Age Group Benefits Cardiovascular health: Regular exercise lowers the risk of heart disease, hypertension, and stroke Weight management: Physical activity helps with weight control and maintaining a healthy BMI Bone health: Weight-bearing activities can improve bone density and reduce the risk of osteoporosis Adults (Ages 18-64) Mental health: Exercise can reduce stress, anxiety, and depression while enhancing mood and overall mental well-being Reduced risk of chronic diseases: Regular physical activity lowers the risk of chronic conditions like diabetes and certain cancers Improved sleep: Exercise can lead to better sleep quality and duration Benefits of Physical Activity Age Group Benefits Mobility and independence: Physical activity helps maintain muscle strength, balance, and flexibility, reducing the risk of falls Bone health: Weight-bearing exercises are particularly important for maintaining bone density Cognitive health: Physical activity is associated with better cognitive function and a reduced risk of cognitive decline Older Adults (Ages 65+) Cardiovascular health: It can help manage blood pressure and reduce the risk of heart disease Social engagement: Group activities can provide social interaction and combat feelings of isolation Improved quality of life: Regular physical activity contributes to an overall higher quality of life in older adults What are the Correlates of Exercise Correlates refers to the variables that are associated with either an increase of decrease in physical activity The following are considered as correlates of exercise:  Demographics  Knowledge and Education  Health Status and Medical Conditions  Cultural and Social Norms  Psychological Factors  Technology and Social Media Influence  Social and Environmental Factors  Behavioral Factors  Psychosocial Factors Demographics Age: Exercise patterns may differ by age, with younger individuals often being more physically active. Gender: There can be gender differences in exercise participation, with men and women sometimes engaging in different types and levels of activity. Socioeconomic status: Income, education, and occupation can influence access to resources, facilities, and opportunities for physical activity. Health Status and Medical Conditions Chronic health conditions: The presence of certain medical conditions (e.g., diabetes, arthritis) may affect exercise choices and ability. Physical fitness: Individuals with higher levels of fitness are more likely to engage in regular exercise. Psychologica l Factors Motivation: Intrinsic motivation (e.g., enjoyment of the activity) and extrinsic motivation (e.g., fitness goals) can influence exercise behavior. Self-efficacy: Belief in one's ability to engage in and stick to an exercise routine is a significant predictor of exercise. Perceived barriers: The perception of obstacles (e.g., lack of time, access to facilities) can hinder exercise participation Social and Environmental Factors Social support: Having friends, family, or a support network that encourages physical activity can be a strong motivator. Built environment: Access to parks, sidewalks, and recreational facilities can impact exercise opportunities. Neighborhood safety: Perceived or actual safety concerns may deter people from outdoor physical activity. Behavioral Factors Sedentary behavior: Individuals who engage in prolonged sitting or inactivity may be less likely to exercise. Previous exercise habits: Past exercise behavior can be a strong predictor of future activity levels. Psychosocial Factors Body image and self-esteem: Individuals with positive body image and higher self-esteem may be more likely to engage in exercise. Stress and mental health: Exercise is often seen as a coping mechanism for stress and may be influenced by mental health status. Knowledge and Education Health knowledge: Awareness of the health benefits of exercise can motivate individuals to be active. Physical education and sports participation: Exposure to physical education and sports in school can influence lifelong exercise habits Cultural and Social Norms Cultural factors: Cultural values and norms may shape attitudes toward physical activity. Social norms: Perceptions of what is considered "normal" behavior within a social group can affect exercise choices. Technology and Media Influence Access to fitness apps, wearable devices, and online fitness content can influence exercise behavior. Media portrayal: Media representations of physical activity can impact perceptions and motivation. SEDENTAR Y BEHAVIOR Sedentary Behavior Refers to any waking activity characterized by little physical movement and an energy expenditure of less than or equal to 1.5 metabolic equivalents (METs) in either a sitting or reclining position This means that any time a person is either sitting or lying down, that person is engaging in sedentary behavior One common misconception is sleeping is considered a sedentary behavior. You have to consider that sleeping is not considered as a waking activity Sedentary Behavior This encompasses activities based on technology (TV, computer use, video games), socializing (sitting, talking, texting), travel (car, train), work/school (reading, listening to music) Screen Time It is a collective term referring to the duration of television watching, playing passive video games, and using mobile devices and computers Recreational Screen Time Refers specifically to television watching, passive video game playing, using the computer, or use of other screens during leisure time that are practiced while sedentary Light or Mild Physical Activity It is often incorrectly grouped with sedentary behavior, involves energy expenditure at the level of 1.6 to 2.9 METs Mild Activities include slow walking, cooking food, and washing dishes Is Sedentarism different from just not getting enough exercise? Yes! Sitting is not the behavioral equivalent of exercising too little The term inactive behavior or physical inactivity typically describes those who are performing insufficient amounts of moderate to vigorous physical activity Correlates of Sedentary Behavior Age Sedentary behavior tends to increase with age, as older adults may have less active lifestyles. Occupation Jobs that require long hours of sitting or desk work are often associated with higher levels of sedentary behavior. Screen Time Excessive screen time, including TV watching, computer use, and smartphone use, is a major correlate of sedentary behavior. Socioecono mic Status People with lower socioeconomic status may have limited access to facilities or resources for physical activity. Physical Health Individuals with chronic health conditions that limit mobility are more likely to be sedentary. Psychologica l Factors Stress, depression, and lack of motivation can contribute to sedentary behavior. Built Environment Living in areas without safe and accessible places for physical activity can lead to more sedentary behavior. Social Support A lack of social support for physical activity can be a correlate of sedentary behavior. Cultural and Environmenta l Factors Cultural norms and the physical environment of a region can influence sedentary behavior. Technology Use The availability and use of sedentary entertainment options like video games and streaming services can impact behavior. Theoretical Models for Exercise and Sedentary Behavior SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY Social Cognitive Theory This is a model that includes, sociostructural factors, and outcome expectations, but the central mediator of the model is the construct of self-efficacy Self-Efficacy This refers to belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments It is believed by Albert Bandura that it is the foundation for human behavior Albert Bandura noted “unless people believe they can produce desired effects by their actions, they have little incentive to act. Efficacy belief, therefore, is a major basis for action” Social Cognitive Theory Outcome Expectations -Physical -Social -Self-Evaluative Self-Efficacy Goals Behavior Sociostructural -Facilitators -Impediments Triadic Reciprocal Determinism The basis of the social cognitive theory is the concept of Triadic Reciprocal Determinism Specifically, three classes of determinants – a. behavior, b. internal personal factors, and c. external environment – are assumed to coexist Behavior Factors included are the type, frequency, duration, and context of the behavior These factors can also be influenced by or influence internal personal factors Internal Personal Factors Factors such as individual cognitions such as self- efficacy, outcome expectations, and goals of a person are included External Environment Factors such as teammates, facilities, coach may influence a person’s self- efficacy Sources of Self- Efficacy Beliefs Mastery Experiences According to Social Cognitive Theory, the most potent source of self-efficacy is personal mastery experiences Carrying out the task successfully helps to cement the belief in the person that he or she has the capabilities necessary Bandura has also pointed out that an efficacy belief is more resilient if the individual has also had to overcome obstacles and adversity and has done so successfully Vicarious Experiences This is also known as observational learning The behavior (successes or failures) of others can be utilized as a comparative standard for the individual Observing others who are similar achieve success increases self-efficacy, while observing them fail is thought to diminish it Vicarious Experiences One specialized form of vicarious experiences is called cognitive self modeling or imagery experiences Here, the individual uses visualization to repeatedly and successfully confront and master challenging situations Verbal Persuasion Its influence is generally thought to be weaker than observational vicarious experiences or personal experiences Verbal persuasion has its greatest impact of self-efficacy on those individuals who have some reason to believe that they could be successful if they persist Physiological State The fourth source of information for self-efficacy beliefs is the individual’s physiological state Bodily sensations such as increased heart rate, increased sweating, and increased respiratory rate can serve to provide signal to the individual about his or her current level of efficacy Bandura emphasized that the individual’s physiological state like performance experiences, vicarious experiences, and verbal persuasion is not by itself, an indicator of self-efficacy Mood States It can influence self-efficacy through either affective priming or cognitive priming Affective priming occurs because previous success or failures are stored in memory with associated states. Thus, when we are successful, we store that experience in memory along with the feelings of joy, elation, vigor, and so on that initially accompanied it MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES Motivational Theories The following are considered as motivational theories applicable to exercise and sedentary behavior: Health Belief Model Protection Motivation Theory Self-Determination Theory Health Belief Model The health belief model is generally acknowledged as the first model that adapted theory from the behavioral sciences to health problems, and it remains one of the most widely recognized conceptual frameworks for health behavior The originators of the health belief model were concerned with the widespread failure of individuals to engage in preventative health measures, such as getting a flu vaccine Health Belief Model It was postulated that individuals will comply with preventative regimens if they possessor do the following: Minimal levels of relevant health motivation and knowledge Perceive themselves as potentially vulnerable View the disease as severe Convinced that the preventative regimen is effective See few difficulties or barriers in undertaking the regimen  Health Belief Model Constructs Benefits Barriers The basic components of Perceived the health belief model Severity suggest that behavior depends mainly upon two Perceived Health variables: Threat Behavior 1) The value placed by an individual on a particular Perceived behavioral goal Susceptibilit y Cues to Action 2) The individual’s estimate of the likelihood that a given action will achieve that goal  Health Belief Model Constructs Benefits Barriers When these two variables Perceived were conceptualized in the Severity context of health-related behavior, the focus was on Perceived Health either: Threat Behavior 1) The desire to avoid illness, or if ill, to get well Perceived Susceptibilit 2) The belief that a specific y Cues to Action health action will prevent or improve illness  Health Belief Model Constructs Benefits Barriers Perceived Severity To engage in a behavior and thereby avoid an illness, an Perceived Health individual must first believe Threat Behavior that he or she is personally susceptible to that illness Perceived Individuals vary in their Susceptibilit perceived susceptibility to a y Cues to Action disease or condition  Health Belief Model Constructs Benefits Barriers Perceived This refers to an individual’s Severity feelings concerning the seriousness of a health Perceived Health condition if it is contracted, Threat Behavior or treatment is not obtained, or both Perceived These feelings can be Susceptibilit considered from the point of y Cues to Action view of the difficulties that an illness would create  Health Belief Model Constructs Benefits Barriers Perceived Severity It refers to the efficacy of the advised action to reduce the Perceived Health risk or seriousness of the Threat Behavior impact The direction of action that a Perceived person chooses will be Susceptibilit influenced by his or her y Cues to Action beliefs regarding the action  Health Belief Model Constructs Benefits Barriers Self-Efficacy Perceived Severity It is the judgment regarding one’s ability to perform a behavior required to achieve a Perceived Health certain outcome, and it is an Threat Behavior important component of behavior change Perceived Due to its recent inclusion in Susceptibilit the health belief model, self- y Cues to Action efficacy has not been evaluated as extensively as the other constructs  Health Belief Model Constructs Benefits Barriers It is important to note that Perceived action may not take place Severity even though the individual believes that the benefits of taking action are effective, and Perceived Health he or she possesses self- Threat Behavior efficacy about performing that behavior Perceived Common barriers to Susceptibilit undertaking physical activity y Cues to Action include low motivation, inconvenience of facilities, expense, lack of time, and discomfort  Health Belief Model Constructs Benefits Barriers An individual’s perception of Perceived Severity the degree of both susceptibility and severity provides his or her desire to Perceived Health take action, and the Threat Behavior perceptions of benefits provide the preferred path of action (e.g. shortness of Perceived breath, mass media Susceptibilit communications, information y Cues to Action about benefits of exercise and consequence of sedentary lifestyle) Protection Motivation Theory Television advertisements often attempt to instill fear in observers in order to change their attitudes and behavior For example, a dramatic car crash is followed by the observation that drinking and driving do not mix Protection Motivation Theory This may seem effective but appeals based on fear do not consistently result in attitude and behavior changes because it might also rely on the perceived vulnerability of the person to that particular health concern Self-Determination Theory It has its origins in the search for understanding the relative influence of intrinsic interest and extrinsic rewards on human behavior As a consequence, attention was directed toward understanding the function of rewards Self-Determination Theory According to SDT, there are three types of motivation: Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation Amotivation Amotivation This refers to the absence or either intrinsic or extrinsic motivation towards an activity Extrinsic Motivation According to determination theorists, extrinsic motivation is best viewed as multidimensional in nature. These are the dimensions of extrinsic motivation: 1. External Regulation 2. Introjected Regulation 3. Identified Regulation 4. Integrated Regulation External Regulation One dimension is called external regulation, the “purest” form of extrinsic motivation The individual engages in a behavior solely to receive a reward or to avoid punishment Consider the case of a person who has been told by his or her physician that an immediate consequence of continued inactivity could be hospitalization. So, grudgingly, a program of physical activity is initiated Introjected Regulation A dimension that is slightly further along the continuum is called introjected regulation It represents the incomplete internalization of a regulation that was previously solely external Returning to our example, the individual might eventually progress to where he or she is no longer at high risk. However, the physical activity program was maintained because of a sense of “should” or “must”. The source of motivation would be introjected regulation Identified Regulation A third extrinsic motivation dimension that is slightly further along the continuum is called identified regulation Here, the individual freely chooses to carry out an activity that is not considered to be enjoyable per se, but which is thought to be important to achieve a personal goal Identified regulation would be illustrated by an individual who is regularly physically active, does not enjoy the activity in the least, but views it as essential for weight control Integrated Regulation The final extrinsic regulation construct is called integrated regulation When identified regulations are well coordinated with other values, it is said to be integrated regulation, which can be a powerful form of regulation because it represents a choice to carry out the activity congruent with other behaviors and choices in one’s life Intrinsic Motivation This is the motivation for an activity for its own sake or the pleasure it provides. It was also proposed that intrinsic motivation is multidimensional in nature: Knowledge The pleasure of engaging in an activity to learn something new or about the activity Accomplishment Being able to complete something and the mental satisfaction it gives Stimulation Motivation to experience the physical sensations derive from the activity itself