20th Century Philosophers - Continental Philosophy Part B PDF

Philosophical Philosopher Main Thesis Important Quote Period Continental Simone de In The Second Sex, Beauvoir examines the societal “One is not born but Philosophy: Beauvoir structures that define women as the “Other...

Philosophical Philosopher Main Thesis Important Quote Period Continental Simone de In The Second Sex, Beauvoir examines the societal “One is not born but Philosophy: Beauvoir structures that define women as the “Other,” becomes a woman.” Existentialism contrasting men as the essential subject. She (From The Second argues that gender is not an innate characteristic Sex) but a social construct shaped by history, culture, and systemic inequality. Existentialist themes underpin her work, as she calls for women to assert their freedom, reject prescribed roles, and create their own meaning, stating that while women gaining the right to vote and economical autonomy is progressive, liberation does not stop there. Beauvoir explores the psychological and economic mechanisms that perpetuate gender inequality and challenges women to rise above this oppression by embracing their agency. For Beauvoir, one becomes a woman not just because others say so, but because she actively assumes her bodily existence in such a way. The Second Sex’s critique of patriarchy continues to challenge social, political and religious categories used to justify women’s inferior status. Beauvoir critiques the idea that women must emulate men to assert their independence or achieve freedom. By trying to conform to these standards, women risk alienating themselves from their authentic selves, including their unique experiences as women. Society socializes women into traditional gender roles, teaching them to be “feminine” in ways that often prioritize passivity, submission, and dependency. This process instills a fear of risk, ambition, and individuality, making women hesitant to pursue their ideals or challenge the status quo. Søren Søren Kierkegaard’s central thesis in these "The first thing, the Kierkegaard excerpts revolves around the primacy of the unconditional individual’s personal and spiritual relationship with condition for  God, contrasted with the distractions and anything to be done, superficialities of modern life. He critiques the noisy, consequently the fast-paced nature of society, which undermines the very first thing that depth and sincerity needed for self-examination and must be done is: spiritual growth. For Kierkegaard, silence is create silence, bring essential for hearing God’s Word, and without it, about silence; God's faith becomes distorted by external noise and Word cannot be shallow communication. heard, and if in order to be heard in the He also emphasizes the transformative power of hullabaloo it must be Christ’s love and divine authority, which alone can shouted deafeningly liberate the individual from guilt and sin. with noisy Kierkegaard stresses that true spiritual awakening instruments, then it requires internal effort and choice, as humanity is not God’s Word; cannot rely on external forces like nature, societal create silence!" norms, or institutional authority to achieve faith or — Søren redemption. Ultimately, his writings urge individuals Kierkegaard, For to reject passive existence as spectators of the Self-Examination, world and instead actively engage in the pursuit of 1851. truth, mercy, and an authentic relationship with God. Friedrich In Beyond Good and Evil, Nietzsche deconstructs “He who fights with Nietzsche traditional morality, arguing that it stems from a monsters should be “slave morality” designed to suppress the powerful. careful lest he He introduces the idea of the “Übermensch” thereby become a (Overman), an individual who transcends monster...” conventional moral values to create their own meaning and purpose. Nietzsche’s “will to power” describes the driving force of human ambition, creativity, and overcoming. He critiques metaphysical concepts like truth and morality, advocating for a life-affirming philosophy that rejects absolutes and embraces the chaos of existence. Marxism Karl Korsch In Marxism and Philosophy, Korsch argues that "Until very recently, Marxism is not merely a theoretical framework but a neither bourgeois practical tool for revolution. He critiques attempts to nor Marxist thinkers separate Marxism from philosophy, emphasizing had much the importance of historical materialism as a means appreciation of the of understanding and transforming society. Korsch fact that the relation highlights how philosophy must evolve alongside between Marxism social conditions and insists that Marxist theory can and philosophy only be realized through active engagement with might pose a very class struggle. He positions Marxism as both a important theoretical critique of ideology and a guide for revolutionary and practical action. problem."1  He argues that both bourgeois scholars and Korsch addresses: orthodox Marxists have failed to appreciate the the neglected philosophical content and implications of Marxism. philosophical Korsch contends that: dimensions of Many Marxists dismissed philosophy altogether, Marxism and the believing that Marxism had superseded it. importance of Bourgeois philosophers tended to ignore or understanding the misunderstand Marxism's philosophical aspects. relationship between This mutual disregard stemmed from a Marxist theory and abandonment of the dialectical method and a philosophical misunderstanding of the relationship between thought. theory and practice. Korsch argues that this oversight has led to a superficial understanding of Marxism and its historical development. Maurice In his essays on Marxism and phenomenology, Merleau-Pon Merleau-Ponty critiques the deterministic ty interpretation of Marxist theory. He argues that human history is shaped not only by material conditions but also by lived experiences and human actions. By incorporating phenomenology into Marxism, he emphasizes the role of individual subjectivity and consciousness within historical movements. He rejects static interpretations of history, seeing it as a dynamic process shaped by the interplay of structure and human agency. Phenomenolo Martin In Being and Time, Heidegger seeks to uncover the “The question of the gy Heidegger meaning of Being itself, a question overlooked by meaning of Being is traditional philosophy. He introduces the concept of the most universal Dasein (being-there), a being that is uniquely aware and the of its existence and temporality. Heidegger argues emptiest of that Dasein is characterized by “being-in-the-world,” questions” where its existence is always situated in a specific context. He explores themes like authenticity, where individuals confront their mortality to live meaningfully, and inauthenticity, where they conform to societal norms. Heidegger also highlights the centrality of time in understanding human existence. Edmund In Philosophy and the Crisis of European Man, "The spiritual telos Husserl Husserl critiques the dominance of scientific of European Man, in objectivism, arguing that it has led to a crisis in which is included the European culture by ignoring subjective experience. particular telos of  He calls for a “return to the things themselves,” separate nations where philosophy directly examines consciousness and of individual and phenomena as they are experienced. Husserl’s human beings, lies phenomenology emphasizes intentionality, the idea in infinity; it is an that consciousness is always directed toward infinite idea, toward something, and he seeks to uncover the structures which in secret the underlying human experience. He views philosophy collective spiritual as a rigorous, foundational science that restores becoming, so to meaning to human existence. speak, strives" Husserl argues that Europe is experiencing a spiritual crisis, which stems from a This quote highlights misunderstanding of the relationship between the Husserl's view of natural sciences and the humanistic sciences. He European civilization contends that this crisis is rooted in the failure to as driven by a recognize the unique nature of spiritual phenomena spiritual purpose and the need for a distinct approach to studying that transcends them. individual nations and aims at infinite Key Points ideals. It underscores his Critique of Naturalism: Husserl criticizes the belief in the unique tendency to apply methods of natural sciences to character of the study of human spirit and culture. European culture and its philosophical Importance of Humanistic Sciences: He foundations. emphasizes the need for a pure science of spirit that can investigate the essence of spiritual phenomena without reducing them to physical processes. European Identity: Husserl defines Europe not geographically, but as a spiritual unity characterized by a shared philosophical tradition and rational ideals. Teleology of European Spirit: He proposes that European history has an inherent teleology, moving towards the realization of rational ideas and infinite tasks. Birth of Philosophy: Husserl identifies ancient Greece as the spiritual birthplace of Europe, where a new attitude towards the world emerged, leading to the development of philosophy and science. Hortense Spillers argues that the African American female "The personal Spillers identity is intricately linked to a legacy of oppression pronouns are offered and cultural dislocation. She critiques traditional in the service of a  narratives that frame black families within a collective function... patriarchal structure, emphasizing instead how the In certain human historical conditions of slavery have shaped a societies, a child’s unique matriarchal dynamic. This dynamic identity is complicates the understanding of familial roles and determined through identities, particularly concerning motherhood and the line of the fatherhood. Mother, but the United States... is Cultural Identity: Spillers discusses how African not one of them." American women are often defined by societal labels that obscure their true identities, leading to a This quote "locus of confounded identities." encapsulates her argument about how Matriarchy vs. Patriarchy: She examines the notion identity formation that in African American communities, maternal within African lineage often defines identity due to the historical American absence of fathers, challenging the conventional communities understanding of family structures. diverges from mainstream societal The Concept of the "Bastard": The essay explores norms due to how traditional notions of legitimacy and inheritance historical and social are disrupted in African American contexts, where contexts. It paternal absence creates a different understanding underscores her of identity and belonging. exploration of how maternal lineage Critique of Moynihan Report: Spillers critiques becomes pivotal in Daniel Patrick Moynihan's analysis of black defining identity families, arguing that it misrepresents the realities amidst systemic faced by African Americans and reinforces harmful oppression and stereotypes. cultural fragmentation. Structuralism Michel Foucault Richard F. The essay Do Children Think Philosophically? by ”In particular, doing Kitchener Richard F. Kitchener explores whether children philosophy is often possess the capacity for philosophical thought, confused with focusing on developmental and cognitive thinking critically” considerations. Kitchener critiques Piaget’s developmental theories and suggests that, while children may not systematically engage in philosophy as adults do, they often demonstrate a natural curiosity and capacity for engaging with fundamental philosophical questions, especially when guided appropriately Post-Structur Jacques In Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the alism Derrida Human Sciences, Derrida introduces  deconstruction, a method of analyzing texts to reveal their inherent contradictions and instability. He critiques the Western tradition’s focus on logocentrism, which prioritizes speech and fixed meaning. Derrida’s concept of différance suggests that meaning is always deferred and relational, undermining the possibility of absolute truths. He challenges the rigid structures of thought and emphasizes the fluid, dynamic nature of language and interpretation. Walter Kaufmann Critical Jürgen Theory Habermas Max In Dialectic of Enlightenment, Horkheimer (with "Enlightenment is Horkheimer Adorno) critiques Enlightenment rationality, arguing totalitarian." that it has become a tool of domination rather than liberation. They explore how technological and This quote scientific advancements, instead of fostering encapsulates their freedom, have been used to control nature and argument that the humanity. Horkheimer examines how reason has Enlightenment's been instrumentalized to perpetuate inequality and rationality, when systemic oppression. taken to its extreme, can lead to oppressive systems that deny individual freedom and promote conformity. It reflects their critical stance on how enlightenment ideals can become tools for domination rather than emancipation. Postmodern Jean Baudrillard argues that seduction is fundamentally "Seduction alone is Philosophy Baudrillard about the manipulation of appearances rather than radically opposed to the fulfillment of desire or the assertion of power. anatomy as destiny." He posits that in a society increasingly dominated by production and utility, seduction emerges as an This statement artifice that disrupts the binary oppositions of encapsulates masculine and feminine, real and simulated, and Baudrillard's truth and appearance. This disruption reveals the argument that fragility of established systems of meaning and seduction power. challenges  deterministic views Seduction vs. Production: Baudrillard contrasts of identity and seduction with production, suggesting that while sexuality. By production is concerned with utility and efficiency, asserting that seduction thrives on ambiguity, playfulness, and the seduction operates manipulation of signs. independently from biological or Role of Femininity: He discusses how femininity is anatomical often associated with seduction, highlighting its constraints, he potential to challenge patriarchal structures by emphasizes its role operating outside conventional power dynamics. as a powerful force Seduction becomes a form of resistance against in reshaping social rigid definitions of identity and sexuality. relations and perceptions. Hyperreality: Baudrillard introduces the concept of hyperreality, where the distinction between reality and simulation blurs. In this context, seduction plays a crucial role in shaping perceptions and experiences, often leading to a loss of genuine desire. Cultural Critique: The text critiques contemporary culture's obsession with authenticity and truth, arguing that these pursuits often ignore the more profound implications of seduction as a strategy that can subvert dominant narratives. Richard In Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity, Rorty Rorty advocates for a pragmatic approach to philosophy, rejecting the search for objective truths. He argues that truth is a contingent, historical construct shaped by social practices and language. Rorty emphasizes solidarity over metaphysical foundations, proposing that philosophy should focus on improving human welfare and fostering progress through collaboration and creativity.