2025 IT Science Study Guide FINAL PDF

2025 Catholic Schools Academic Junior High Decathlon Science Individual Subject Test Study Guide Based on Scientists Who Changed History by DK Permission to copy for Academic Decathlon team and classroom use only. Electronic distribution limited to Academic Decathlon team and classroom use only. Science Individual Subject Test Study Guide Table of Contents Pages Introduction to the Study Guide 1-3 Vocabulary and Review Questions 4 - 34 Chapter 1: The Dawn of Science 4 - 12 Chapter 2: Scientific Revolution 13 - 17 Chapter 3: Reason and Enlightenment 18 - 27 Chapter 4 Science and Industry 28 - 34 Practice Tests 35 - 58 Practice Test One 36 - 46 Practice Test Two 47 - 58 Answer Keys 59 - 87 Chapter 1: The Dawn of Science 60 - 65 Chapter 2: Scientific Revolution 66 - 69 Chapter 3: Reason and Enlightenment 70 - 79 Chapter 4 Science and Industry 80 - 85 Practice Test One 86 Practice Test Two 87 2025 IT Science Study Guide Introduction INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE INDIVIDUAL TEST STUDY GUIDE Resource Material The Individual Test in Science will cover the material in the resource book Scientists Who Changed History by DK Combining elements of biography, history, and analysis, Scientists Who Changed History explains the groundbreaking contributions made by these revolutionary men and women. Scientists Who Changed History profiles trailblazing individuals from Greek mathematicians, through physicists of the early 20th-century, to modern greats. Each featured individual has made a major contribution to one or more scientific field, from astronomy, biology, medicine, and psychology, to computer science and geology. Scope: The Individual Test in Science will cover information from Chapters 1 through 4 (pages 6-161). The Study Guide is divided into the following sections: Chapter 1: The Dawn of Science (pages 6-39) Chapter 2: Scientific Revolution (pages 40-63) Chapter 3: Reason and Enlightenment (pages 64-119) Chapter 4: Science and Industry (pages 120-161) Citations Page numbers are included on the Answer Keys in parentheses, for the Vocabulary Words, Short Answer Questions, and Practice Tests. Please note that the page numbers listed in the study guide may vary from different print and electronic versions of the book. The page numbers are based on the print version of the book listed on the AJHD Study Resources list. Students should refer to the citation on the answer keys and reread the text to resolve their questions regarding answers. 1 2025 IT Science Study Guide Introduction Vocabulary Comprehensive lists of vocabulary words with their definitions for each section are included in the Answer Key section of the study guide. The vocabulary words are listed in order of their appearance in the book. This readily available list of defined words enables students to quickly know a word’s definition and thus maintain focus on the information being relayed in the text. Students are expected to know the definitions and concepts covered on the vocabulary lists. As an alternative to the completed vocabulary lists, a copy of the vocabulary words without definitions is included in the study guide before the review questions for each chapter. This gives the coach/teacher the option of using vocabulary from the book as homework assignments if being taught in a classroom setting. Vocabulary definitions were derived from text context in Scientists Who Changed History and Merriam-Webster online. Review Questions There are Review Questions to assist students in processing the information contained in each section of the book. Where appropriate, students should be allowed to give short answers that are not necessarily complete sentences. It is recommended that students print out a copy of the whole Study Guide that pertains to the information in the text. This packet, when completed with a student’s written answers, will be an invaluable study aid for the decathlon test. All questions have corresponding Answers (or Answers Keys) with suggested answers and page citations. Suggested answers to the questions are written to help students with insights. After composing and sharing their own answers, students may refer to the answer keys to compare their own answers and to discuss answers in depth. Practice Tests This study guide includes two 50-question practice tests for students to use to test their knowledge of the subject. Each practice test is in the same format as the questions on the competition test at the Academic Junior High Decathlon. After completing the practice tests, use the answer keys with page citations to help clarify any incorrect answers. Study the test results for areas that may need more review. Send the students back to the materials to better prepare themselves for the day of the competition. Be aware that questions on the actual test will cover material from the book that may or may not be highlighted by the review questions and practice tests in the study guide. Students must read the book in order to excel in the competition! 2 2025 IT Science Study Guide Introduction Tips for Studying Begin studying AJHD resource materials as soon as possible! Do not wait until the month before the test to begin studying. Read study materials for detail. Understand the concepts and important information. Review materials on a regular basis. Set up a quiet study area, without distractions. Create a graphic organizer or timeline, if appropriate to the materials. Create your own set of flashcards on index cards. Keep a set of flashcards handy to review materials while traveling to and from school. Become familiar with multiple-choice format tests. Try to write multiple-choice questions based on study materials. Learn, practice, and implement test-taking skills (e.g. - elimination, underlining key words in questions). Take the practice exams included in the study guides. Set a time limit for completing the test. 3 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 1: The Dawn of Science - Vocabulary Chapter 1: The Dawn of Science (650 BC-1450) AJHD Writer’s Reflection Chapter one is perfectly titled as it focuses on the roots of our scientific practices, modalities, and advances. They were the innovators of their time that initiated a sense of curiosity by the scientists that followed. Some of the discoveries have now been disproven, improved, or may stand as they once were. Regardless, their initiation into these multiple fields set the foundation for all the scientists that came after. Vocabulary empirical (proof) - (6) hypothesis - (6) heliocentric - (7) logic - (14) lyceum - (14) metaphysics - (16) inertia - (17) polymath - (19) pi (π) - (19) armillary sphere - (22) seismoscope - (22) seismograph - (22) humors - (26) conic section - (30) 4 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 1: The Dawn of Science - Vocabulary astrolabe - (30) hydrometer - (32) optics - (36) 5 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 1: The Dawn of Science – Review Questions Review Questions 1. Early scientists made fundamental errors due to the fact that they didn’t rely on ______________ evidence in their scientific ideas. 2. Describe the scientific method: ______________ is proposed systematically ___________ _____________ on the strength of the results 3. Whose electromagnetism studies led to the invention of the electric motor? ________________________________ 4. What was the name of the group of intellectuals from the 7th and 6th centuries BCE that included Thales of Miletus? _________________________________________________ 5. How was Thales able to measure the height of an Egyptian pyramid? ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ 6. What were Aristotle’s publications on animal studies? ________________________________________________________________________ 7. How did Aristotle disprove the long-held belief that the Earth was flat? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 8. What was Archimedes’ screw? ________________________________________________________________________ 9. Describe Zhang Heng’s seismoscope. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 6 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 1: The Dawn of Science – Review Questions 10. How did medical science benefit from Claudius Galenus working as physician to the Roman gladiators? ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ 11. What subjects did Hypatia’s father encourage her to study? ________________________________________________________________________ 12. What did Socrates have to say about Hypatia? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 13. Who wrote the Almagest and Geographica? ___________________________________ 14. Who is known as the father of algebra? _______________________________________ 15. Why was Alhazen under house arrest in Egypt? ________________________________________________________________________ 16. What was considered Hildegard of Bingen’s most complex work? ________________________________________________________________________ 17. Who was the author of the first printed mathematics textbook? What was the title? ________________________________________________________________________ 18. Completed in 77 CE, who wrote the book Natural History and what did it contain? ________________________________________________________________________ 7 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 1: The Dawn of Science – Review Questions 19. Identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Medicine Claudius Galenus (Galen) Hippocrates Hildegard of Bingen 8 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 1: The Dawn of Science – Review Questions 20. Identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Mathematics Archimedes Eratosthenes Zhang Heng Hypatia Al-Khwarizmi 9 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 1: The Dawn of Science – Review Questions 21. identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Astronomy Thales of Miletus Aristotle Pythagoras Eratosthenes Zhang Heng Ptolemy 10 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 1: The Dawn of Science – Review Questions 22. Identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Scientific Practices Thales of Miletus Aristotle Alhazen 23. What were the significant scientific contributions of the following scientists? Scientist Contribution (not related to areas described in questions 19-22) Archimedes Aristotle Theophrastus Zhang Heng 11 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 1: The Dawn of Science – Review Questions 24. Match the date with the corresponding findings. Scientific Finding Date of Discovery _____Archimedes designs Syracusia, a giant ship built as a gift for A. 130 CE Ptolemy III of Egypt. B. 132 CE _____Building of a seismic device that is able to record distant earthquakes. C. 240 BCE _____Founding of Lyceum; Aristotle begins researching and D. 335 BCE writing many of his treatises. _____Zheng Heng calculates pi as 3.162. Science Jeopardy 25. His gift to Ptolemy III, Syracusia, weighed over 4,000 tons. Who is: _______________________ 26. This world traveler became the personal physician for the emperor Marcus Aurelis. Who is: _______________________ 27. This Muslim scholar developed the Hindu-Arabic number system. Who is: _______________________ 28. Correctly predicted an eclipse and was credited with discovering five geometric theorems. Who is: _______________________ 29. A leading authority on medieval pharmacology, she prescribed herbs and botanical tonics to cure specific diseases. Who is: _______________________ 30. This scientist helped revise 13 books of Euclid’s Elements. (30, 33) Who is: _______________________ 31. This Greek philosopher and scientist identified 500 living species. Who is: _______________________ 32. This scientist designed a nonmagnetic compass. Who is: _______________________ 33. An innovator that was tasked with regulating the flow of the River Nile but it proved impossible. Who is: _______________________ 12 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 2: Scientific Revolution - Vocabulary Chapter 2: Scientific Revolution (1450-1650) AJHD Writer’s Reflection Sight is the theme for this chapter and the main requirement for those in the field of science. Looking through past lenses and determining what other lenses are needed to fully understand is the sight acuity these scientists embraced. Looking at the stars and movement in the sky to challenge past beliefs. Looking at ourselves to see how things within us really function. Vocabulary physiology - (43) theodolite - (45) geocentric - (46) principle of inertia - (53) Kepler’s first law of planetary motion - (58) Kepler’s second law of planetary motion - (58) Kepler’s third law of planetary motion - (58) capillaries - (61) 13 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 2: Scientific Revolution – Review Questions Review Questions 1. What did Leonardo da Vinci think was a vital tool for inquiry? _____________________ 2. What was different about the cartographic surveys that da Vinci made in 1502? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 3. What was the main problem with the geocentric model of the universe? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 4. Why was Galileo’s discovery of Jupiter’s moons startling in the scientific community? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 5. What did Johannes Kepler determine about a planet’s year (orbital period) and its distance from the Sun? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 6. Before William Harvey’s work on blood circulation, what were the beliefs about circulation? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 7. How did William Harvey explain the way blood flows in the veins? ________________________________________________________________________ 8. What did scientist William Gilbert conclude about the Earth? ________________________________________________________________________ 14 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 2: Scientific Revolution – Review Questions 9. How did Francis Bacon outline his scientific method? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 10. Who created the first barometer? What does a barometer measure? _______________________________________________________________________ 11. Identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Astronomy Nicolaus Copernicus Galileo Galilei Johannes Kepler 12. Identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Mathematics Leonardo da Vinci Leonardo Fibonacci 15 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 2: Scientific Revolution – Review Questions 13. Identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Medicine Leonardo da Vinci Johannes Kepler William Harvey 14. Match the date with the corresponding findings. Scientific Finding Date of Discovery _____Brahe observed a new star in the constellation of Cassiopeia A. 1490 and determined to accurately record celestial bodies. _____Galileo discovered the moons of Jupiter. B. 1514 _____Leonardo da Vinci’s sketch of a flying machine; “ornithopter.” C. 1577 _____Publication of Astronomia Nova, describing Kepler’s first two laws of planetary motion. D. 1609 _____Copernicus privately circulated a handwritten pamphlet that proposed an alternative theory of planetary motion; E. 1610 heliocentric. 16 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 2: Scientific Revolution – Review Questions Science Jeopardy 15. This scientist dissected both dead and living animals. Who is: ________________________ 16. This Polish astronomer challenged the prevailing view of the world by suggesting that the Sun, rather than the Earth, is at the center of the Universe. Who is: ________________________ 17. Dissected 30 corpses to study human anatomy. Who is: ________________________ 18. His telescope magnified normal vision by a factor of 20. Who is: ________________________ 19. This German astronomer and mathematician discovered that Saturn takes roughly 29 Earth years to orbit the Sun. Who is: ________________________ 17 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 3: Reason and Enlightenment - Vocabulary Chapter 3: Reason and Enlightenment (1650-1800) AJHD Writer’s Reflection The scientists in this chapter made groundbreaking discoveries. For those of you that are passionate about engineering, building, and construction to name a few fields, look more in depth to these scientists to see the processes of their work. Vocabulary Boyle’s law - (68) element - (68) Charles’s law - (68) Gay-Lussac’s law - (68) Hooke’s law - (72) Newton’s first law of motion - (78) Newton’s second law of motion - (78) Newton’s third law of motion - (78) Newton’s law of gravity - (78) law of the conservation of charge - (84) binomial nomenclature - (88) taxonomy - (88) rock strata - (93) 18 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 3: Reason and Enlightenment - Vocabulary uniformitarian process - (93) phlogiston theory - (96) nebulae - (99) law of conservation of mass - (102) variolation - (106) hydrologic cycle - (111) Dalton’s law of partial pressures - (112) Dalton’s atomic theory - (112) correlation of parts - (116) theory of catastrophism - (116) 19 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 3: Reason and Enlightenment – Review Questions Review Questions 1. Robert Boyle was part of a group of scientists called the Experimental Philosophy Club. What was their purpose? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 2. What did Robert Boyle’s experiments on the properties of air using a vacuum chamber determine? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 3. How did Robert Hooke improve the microscope? ________________________________________________________________________ 4. What did Isaac Newton use to split the light to show that light is made up of multiple colors? _________________________________________________________________ 5. How did Isaac Newton design his reflecting telescope? ________________________________________________________________________ 6. Why was it important that Ben Franklin charted the Gulf Stream? ________________________________________________________________________ 7. List some of Benjamin Franklin’s inventions. _________________________________________ _________________________________________ _________________________________________ _________________________________________ 8. What was Carl Linnaeus’s most significant contribution to the field of botany? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 20 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 3: Reason and Enlightenment – Review Questions 9. What did James Hutton conclude about the way that rocks are formed? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 10. After studying the work of Henry Cavendish and others on gas chemistry, who developed the world’s first hydrogen-filled balloon? _____________________________ 11. What did Henry Cavendish discover about water? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 12. What planet was discovered by William Herschel? _______________________________ 13. Why was William Herschel considered one of the greatest visual astronomers of all time? ________________________________________________________________________ 14. How did Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier advance the study of the composition of water and air? ________________________________________________________________________ 15. Whose experiments revealed that electricity can be generated chemically as well as by friction? _________________________________________________________________ 16. How did Edward Jenner discover the principle of vaccination? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 17. What two initial discoveries did John Dalton make about atmospheric gases? 1. __________________________________________________________________ 2. __________________________________________________________________ 18. How did Georges Cuvier determine that animal extinctions occur? ________________________________________________________________________ 21 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 3: Reason and Enlightenment – Review Questions 19. Who discovered the process of metamorphosis and how was it determined? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 20. What did Joseph Black discover about the effect of heat on liquids? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 21. Identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Biology Carl Linnaeus Gaspard Bauhin Georges Cuvier 22 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 3: Reason and Enlightenment – Review Questions 22. Identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Chemistry Robert Boyle Joseph Louis Gay- Lussac Benjamin Franklin Charles Du Fay Henry Cavendish Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier Joseph Priestley Alessandro Volta 23 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 3: Reason and Enlightenment – Review Questions John Dalton Jons Jacob Berzelius 23. Identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Earth Science (study of Earth and planets) Issac Newton Christiaan Huygens James Hutton Henry Cavendish William Herschel Louis Agassiz 24 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 3: Reason and Enlightenment – Review Questions 24. Identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Medicine Edward Jenner Benjamin Jesty 25. Identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Microbiology Robert Hooke Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 26. Identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Physics Robert Hooke Issac Newton Christiaan Huygens 25 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 3: Reason and Enlightenment – Review Questions 27. Match the date with the corresponding findings. Scientific Finding Date of Discovery _____Robert Hooke formulates his law of elasticity. A. 1657 _____Publication of Micrographia, a full study of the B. 1660 microscopic natural world. _____Publication of Systema Naturae which provided a new C. 1662 classification system for the natural world. _____Paper published that revealed water’s chemical formula. D. 1665 _____John Dalton published his description of the hydrologic E. 1687 cycle. _____Following Jenner’s research, replacement of inoculation F. 1735 with compulsory vaccination. G. 1784 _____Hooke made significant improvement to the pendulum clock by inventing the anchor escapement, a vital H. 1793 mechanism that maintains the pendulum’s regularity. _____The year Newton’s three laws of motion were published. I. 1799 _____Boyle and Hooke used mercury to alter the pressure on a fixed body of air and discovered that when the pressure J. 1853 of a gas increases, its volume decreases proportionally. _____Voltaic pile was the first battery and the prime means of creating electricity. Science Jeopardy 28. This Cambridge University alumnus wrote 10 million words of text. Who is: ________________________ 29. This German born astronomer discovered Uranus. Who is: ________________________ 30. British school teacher and meteorologist who made over 200,000 observations in his weather journals. Who is: ________________________ 26 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 3: Reason and Enlightenment – Review Questions 31. An Anglo-Irish natural philosopher, he believed that base metals could be turned into gold. Who is: _______________________ 32. This self-educated inventor’s research led to the invention of the modern-day battery. Who is: _______________________ 33. This French scientist used mercury oxide to determine that air contains oxygen. Who is: _______________________ 34. A British scientist, at the forefront of the Scientific Revolution, he held the position as the Royal Society’s curator of experiments for more than 40 years. Who is: _______________________ 35. This British doctor was apprenticed to a local surgeon at the age of 14. Who is: _______________________ 36. This Cambridge University alumnus conducted more than 400 investigations into the nature of air. Who is: _______________________ 37. Mid-18th century botanist, whose binomial naming system is still being used 250 years later. Who is: _______________________ 38. This Scottish geologist was the first to consider the age of the Earth scientifically. Who is: _______________________ 39. This Italian investigator generated an electric current from a circuit of copper, zinc, and brine-soaked paper in 1791. Who is: ______________________ 40. Regarded as the founder of paleontology, he was quoted as saying, “Fossils alone gave birth to a theory about the formation of the Earth.” Who is: _______________________ 27 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 4: Science and Industry - Vocabulary Chapter 4: Science and Industry (1800-1895) AJHD Writer’s Reflection Charles Darwin and Gregor Mendel are the scientists that laid the foundation for how biology is studied. Change and adaptation through time (Darwin) and inheritance through generations (Mendel). The foundation they established led to further discoveries from which we still continue to benefit. Vocabulary looping - (130) lateral branching - (130) ophthalmoscope - (130) natural selection - (134) law of conservation of energy - (139) law of segregation - (142) mutations - (142) pangene (gene) - (142) fermentation - (144) pasteurization - (144) germs - (146) atomic number - (155) 28 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 4: Science and Industry – Review Questions Review Questions 1. How did Michael Faraday discover that moving a magnetic field can cause electricity to flow through a conductor? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 2. How was Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine designed to be programmed? How did he come up with this idea? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 3. How did Ada Lovelace’s notes on calculating machines advance the idea of modern computers? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 4. Where was Charles Darwin when he began making drawings and collecting specimens of the unique life forms he saw and thinking about how they developed? ________________________________________________________________________ 5. What did Darwin propose about the variety of finches (and their beaks) he observed in the islands? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 6. Why was Gregor Mendel originally inspired to work with plant crops? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 7. What prompted Louis Pasteur’s interest in studying microbes? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 8. For what two diseases did Louis Pasteur find vaccines? ________________________________________________________________________ 29 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 4: Science and Industry – Review Questions 9. What did James Clerk Maxwell theorize about the rings of Saturn? ________________________________________________________________________ 10. How did the work of Henry Moseley fit in with Dimitri Mendeleev’s periodic table? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 11. How did Alexander Graham Bell’s telephone work? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 12. Who was the first physician to suggest that yellow fever was caused by mosquitoes? ________________________________________________________________________ 30 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 4: Science and Industry – Review Questions 13. Identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Biology Charles Darwin Gregor Mendel Hugo de Vries Louis Pasteur Robert Koch 14. Identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Chemistry Michael Faraday Dmitri Mendeleev 31 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 4: Science and Industry – Review Questions 15. Identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Engineering Michael Faraday Joseph Henry Charles Babbage Ada Lovelace James Prescott Joule Alexander Graham Bell 32 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 4: Science and Industry – Review Questions 16. Match the date with the corresponding findings. Scientific Finding Date of Discovery _____Faraday created the first electric motor A. 1821 _____Charles Babbage designed his first Difference Engine B. 1822 _____First commercially viable telephone C. 1852 _____Joule-Thomson effect which led to pioneering work in refrigeration D. 1876 Science Jeopardy 17. A British born engineer and teacher to the deaf who invented a device that transmitted speech wirelessly using light. Who is: _______________________ 18. British physicist and chemist, it took him 10 years to successfully connect magnetism to electricity in 1831. Who is: _______________________ 19. This Cambridge University alumnus produced the first paper on evolution. Who is: _______________________ 20. This Cambridge University alumnus had $22,100 contributed by the British government to construct the Difference Engine No. 1. Who is: _______________________ 21. This Trinity College fellow discovered that light waves were 200 million times shorter than radio waves. Who is: _______________________ 22. This British physicist investigated the nature of heat and the transfer of energy. Who is: _______________________ 23. The work of this mathematician inspired Alan Turing’s work on modern computers in the 1940’s. Who is: _______________________ 24. This Vienna University alumnus recorded the growth of more than 29,000 pea plants. Who is: _______________________ 33 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 4: Science and Industry – Review Questions 25. University of Strasbourg professor who established the field of microbiology. Who is: _______________________ 26. His work, The Principles of Chemistry, published between 1868 and 1870, has since been translated into several languages. ______________________________ 34 PRACTICE TESTS 35 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test One IT Science Practice Test One 1. ________ identified 500 living species and 11 genera of animals. A) Alhazen B) Aristotle C) Thales of Miletus D) Zhang Heng E) None of the above 2. The hydrometer is attributed to Hypatia. The function of the hydrometer is to _______. A) measure the specific energy of a liquid B) measure the specific gravity of a liquid C) measure the water present in a vacuum D) measure wave energy E) measure wave pressure 3. Which scientist(s) believed that ill health was caused by imbalance of the four humors of sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, and melancholic? A) Claudius Galenus B) Hildegard of Bingen C) Hippocrates D) Both (A) and (C) E) Both (B) and (C) 4. Claudius Galenus was known for ________. A) discovering that the spinal cord transmits messages to the brain B) establishing the first institution to offer a comprehensive education in all areas of knowledge C) founding a medical school whose students swore an oath to maintain confidentiality and nonmaleficence D) prescribing herbs and botanical tonics as both prevention and cure of specific diseases E) None of the above 36 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test One 5. Which scientist devised a reliable method of calculating prime numbers? A) Al-Khwarizmi B) Archimedes C) Eratosthenes D) Hypatia E) Zhang Heng 6. Pythagoras is known for ________. A) concluding that the Moon and planets did not produce light, but reflected it from the Sun, and that the Universe and planets were spherical B) contributing the idea that the Earth and the planets orbit around a central “hearth” C) devising several armillary spheres for measuring the angles of the stars, planets, and the Sun D) drawing maps of the world, calculating the distance of the Earth to the Sun E) making the cosmological proposition that Earth exists as a flat disk 7. Which scientist pioneered the now standard scientific method of proposing hypotheses and then testing them through experiments? A) Alhazen B) Archimedes C) Aristotle D) Thales of Miletus E) Theophrastus 8. In what year was the founding of Aristotle’s Lyceum? A) 132 BCE B) 150 BCE C) 240 BCE D) 335 BCE E) 546 BCE 9. Which scientist made contributions to the field of medicine? A) Archimedes B) Aristotle C) Hildegard of Bingen D) Thales of Miletus E) None of the above 37 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test One 10. Which scientist(s) made contributions to the field of mathematics? A) Eratosthenes B) Archimedes C) Hippocrates D) Both (A) and (B) E) All of the above 11. Which scientist made contributions to the field of astronomy? A) Aristotle B) Zhang Heng C) Hippocrates D) Hypatia E) None of the above 12. Pi is ________. A) considered to be the foundation of algebra B) considered to be the average of the diameter of a cone C) considered to be the ratio of a circle’s circumference to its diameter D) Both (A) and (C) E) None of the above 13. Thales of Miletus impacted the field(s) of ________. A) astronomy B) mathematics C) scientific practices D) Both (A) and (B) E) All of the above 14. Whose research led to the invention of the battery? A) Benjamin Franklin B) Charles Du Fay C) John Dalton D) Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac E) Joseph Priestly 38 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test One 15. Kepler’s second law of planetary motion ____. A) states that the average year of each planet is dependent on the distance from the Sun B) states that the orbital period of each planet is dependent on its average distance from the Sun C) states that a moving object will keep moving at the same speed unless a force acts on it to slow it down or speed it up D) states that a planet's velocity is not constant and increases as it gets closer to the Sun E) states that a planet’s orbit is elliptical (stretched circle) and that the extent (eccentricity) of that ellipse varies from planet to planet 16. Which scientist improved the telescope which allowed him to discover the mountains and craters in the moon? A) Galileo Galilei B) Johannes Kepler C) Nicolaus Copernicus D) William Harvey E) None of the above 17. Leonardo Fibonacci ________. A) explained the visual mechanisms of depth perception and proposed designs for eyewear B) devised a sequence, in which each number is the sum of the two preceding it: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 C) discovered that the heart is the pump of the body and drives the circulation of blood D) invented the theodolite to measure angles E) All of the above 18. In 1610, Galileo discovered the moons of Jupiter and wrote about his observations in ________. A) The Journal of the Royal Society B) The Starry Messenger C) Philosophical Transactions D) Astronomical Notes and Records E) Harmonices Mundi 39 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test One 19. Which of the following is an accurate definition for Gay-Lussac’s law? A) A static object will move if force is exerted on it. B) Gases expand by the same amount with the same rise in temperature. C) The pressure of a given mass of gas varies directly with the absolute temperature of the gas, when its volume is kept constant. D) The tension in a spring, increases in direct proportion to the force applied to it. E) When the pressure of a gas increases, its volume decreases proportionally. 20. Which of the following is an accurate definition for Newton’s third law of motion? A) Acceleration depends on the force exerted and the mass of the object. B) All forces act in pairs that are equal and opposite. C) Electricity can be neither created nor destroyed, but only transferred from one object to another, while its total amount of charge remains the same. D) Gravity is a universal force and that all objects (including celestial ones) exert a gravitational pull on each other. E) A static object will move if force is exerted on it. 21. ________ are made of clouds of gas and dust. A) Asteroids B) Comets C) Nebulae D) Both (A) and (B) E) None of the above 22. Which of the following is an accurate definition for Dalton’s atomic theory? A) Atoms are indivisible and could not be created or destroyed. B) Each element has atoms of a unique mass. C) Atoms of different elements combine in chemical reactions to form compounds in simple whole-number ratios. D) Both (A) and (B). E) All of the above 23. Which scientist was the first to identify the fossil of a flying reptile? A) Carl Linnaeus B) Gaspard Bauhin C) Georges Cuvier D) Henry Cavendish E) Jons Jacob Berzelius 40 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test One 24. Charles Du Fay _______. A) demonstrated that sound cannot travel through a vacuum, but the magnetic forces and light can B) developed the law of conservation of charge C) observed that like charges repel, whereas opposite charges attract, and recorded the difference between conductors and insulators D) provided evidence to prove Charles’ law E) revealed water’s chemical formula - two parts inflammable air (hydrogen) to one part dephlogisticated air (oxygen) 25. Which scientist showed that respiration was a form of combustion? A) Alessandro Volta B) Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier C) John Dalton D) Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac E) Joseph Priestly 26. Christian Huygens ____ A) became the first scientist to understand that it was gravity that controlled the movements of the planets and held them in orbit B) discovered Saturn’s largest moon, as well as correctly describing its rings C) realized that rocks were formed under intense subterranean heat and pressure in a uniformitarian process which made it possible to estimate the age of rock formations D) Both (A) and (B) E) None of the above 27. Henry Cavendish ________. A) argued that nebulae are composed of stars, not fluid B) revealed water’s chemical formula C) devised an experiment to determine the density of the Earth D) Both (A) and (B) E) Both (B) and (C) 41 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test One 28. Which scientist coined the term “cell,” which he used in Micrographia and laid the foundations for the field of microbiology? A) Antonie Van Leuwenhoek B) Benjamin Jesty C) Edward Jenner D) Robert Hooke E) None of the above 29. Issac Newton ________. A) discovered the pendulum as a regulator of clock movement B) revealed that white light is composed of all colors of the spectrum C) significantly improved the pendulum clock by inventing the anchor escapement, a vital mechanism that maintains the pendulum’s regularity D) Both (A) and (C) E) None of the above 30. Which scientist made significant contributions in the field of medicine? A) Antonie Van Leuwenhoek B) Edward Jenner C) Gaspard Bauhin D) Robert Hooke E) None of the above 31. Which scientist made significant contributions in the field of chemistry? A) Henry Cavendish B) John Jacob Berzelius C) Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac D) Robert Boyle E) All of the above 32. In 1784, Henry Cavendish determined ________. A) water’s chemical formula B) that water is not a chemical element but a compound of two gases C) that water is four parts phlogisticated air to one part dephlogisticated air D) Both (A) and (B) E) All of the above 42 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test One 33. Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke’s most famous experiment determined ________. A) that an anchor escapement maintains the pendulum’s regularity in a clock B) the three laws of motion C) that when the pressure of a gas increases, its volume decreases proportionally D) the law of elasticity E) that light is made up of multiple colors 34. Natural selection is ________. A) the idea that organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring B) when dominant traits are selected over recessive traits C) when recessive traits are selected over dominant traits D) Both (A) and (B) E) Both (A) and (C) 35. Fermentation is ________. A) spontaneous variations B) using herbs to create medicine C) caused by living yeast microbes D) the heating of liquid briefly to kill off bacteria without affecting the taste E) illness causing microbes 36. Which scientist discovered the life cycle of anthrax and identified the bacteria that caused cholera and tuberculosis? A) Charles Darwin B) Gregor Mendel C) Hugo de Vries D) Louis Pasteur E) Robert Koch 37. Which of the following descriptions accurately describes the contributions of Ada Lovelace? A) Built the most powerful electromagnetics in the world, and pioneered the technology that led to the electric telegraph. B) Formulated algebraic code as instructions for the calculating machine. C) Produced and patented a practical telephone. D) Solved the problem of how the elements are related to each other. E) None of the above 43 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test One 38. Which of the following descriptions accurately describes the contributions of Charles Babbage? A) designed the Difference Engine B) examined expansion and temperature changed in gases and led to the pioneering work in refrigeration C) proposed that electromagnetic energy could produce continuous motion creating the first electric motor D) solved the problem of how the elements are related to each other E) None of the above. 39. Which scientist identified the role of leaves in plant nutrition? A) Alhazen B) Archimedes C) Aristotle D) Theophrastus E) Thales of Miletus 40. ________ discovered that Saturn takes roughly 29 Earth years to orbit the sun. A) Benjamin Franklin B) Galileo Galilei C) Johannes Kepler D) Nicolaus Copernicus E) William Harvey 41. ________ held the position as the Royal Society’s curator of experiments for more than 40 years. A) Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek B) Benjamin Jesty C) Edward Jenner D) Robert Hooke E) None of the above 42. Whose analytical engine could store 1,000 50-digit numbers which was more than any pre-1960s computer? A) Ada Lovelace B) Alexander Graham Bell C) Charles Babbage D) James Prescott Joule E) Michael Faraday 44 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test One 43. ________ recorded the growth of more than 29,000 pea plants? A) Charles Darwin B) Gregor Mendel C) Hugo de Vries D) Louis Pasteur E) Robert Koch 44. The complete periodic table has ________ families. A) 3 B) 5 C) 7 D) 8 E) 9 45. Hooke’s law focused on ________. A) elasticity B) electricity C) gases D) gravity E) mass 46. Charles Babbage entrusted ________ to add explanatory notes to his work and led to the process of examining algorithms. A) Ada Lovelace B) James Clerk Maxwell C) Hypatia D) James Prescott Joule E) Zhang Heng 47. Robert Boyle’s work centered around ________. A) mass and volume B) pressure and mass C) pressure and volume D) volume and electricity E) None of the above 45 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test One 48. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek’s 500 microscopes had magnification ranges of ________ times. A) 20 - 168 B) 70 - 266 C) 120 - 370 D) 125 - 400 E) None of the above 49. Who was the first to accurately draw the anatomical structure of a flea? A) Carl Linnaeus B) Charles Darwin C) Leonardo da Vinci D) Robert Hooke E) None of the above 50. Georges Cuvier supported the theory of catastrophism over the theory of ________. A) evolution B) gradualism C) natural selection D) observation E) uniformism 46 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test Two IT Science Practice Test Two 1. Who devised methods to protect humanity from two deadly diseases, anthrax and rabies? A) Charles Darwin B) Gregor Mendel C) Hugo de Vries D) Louis Pasteur E) Robert Koch 2. ________ proved a sphere’s volume is two thirds that of a cylinder encasing it exactly. A) Al-Khwarizmi B) Archimedes C) Eratosthenes D) Hypatia E) Zhang Heng 3. Al-Khwarizmi demonstrated how to work out numerical problems by transporting elements from one side of an equation to the other and canceling out items that appear on both sides, advancing the area of ________. A) algebra B) calculus C) chemistry D) geometry E) physics 4. Which scientist did NOT believe that ill health was caused by imbalance of the four humors? A) Claudius Galenus B) Hildegard of Bingen C) Hippocrates D) William Harvey E) Both (B) and (C) 47 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test Two 5. Claudius Galenus was known for _______. A) establishing the first institution to offer a comprehensive education in all areas of knowledge B) identifying the nerves involved in movement and speech C) founding a medical school whose students swore an oath to maintain confidentiality and nonmaleficence D) prescribing herbs and botanical tonics as both prevention and cure of specific diseases E) None of the above 6. Besides Archimedes, which scientist had his/her own calculation of the formula of pi? A) Al-Khwarizmi B) Aristotle C) Eratosthenes D) Zhang Heng E) Hypatia 7. Zhang Heng is known for ________. A) concluding that the Moon and planets did not produce light, but reflected it from the Sun, and that the Universe and planets were spherical B) devising a water-powered armillary sphere C) contributing the idea that the Earth and the planets orbit around a central “hearth” D) drawing maps of the world and calculating the distance of the Earth to the Sun E) Both (A) and (B) 8. Which scientist designed a mechanical hook made to lift an enemy ship by the prow, throwing sailors into the sea and capsizing or damaging the vessel? A) Alhazen B) Archimedes C) Aristotle D) Thales of Miletus E) Theophrastus 48 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test Two 9. Who created the world’s first seismoscope? A) Al-Khwarizmi B) Aristotle C) Eratosthenes D) Zhang Heng E) Hypatia 10. Which scientist is best known for his/her work in mathematics, particularly explaining conic sections? A) Hippocrates B) Hypatia C) Ptolemy D) Pythagoras E) All of the above 11. Aristotle laid the foundation for ________ by introducing the concept of logic. A) astronomy B) mathematics C) scientific practices D) Both (A) and (B) E) Both (B) and (C) 12. Kepler’s first law of planetary motion ________. A) states that the gas pressure within each planet determines the speed of its rotation B) states that the orbital period of each planet is dependent on its average distance from the Sun C) states that a moving object will keep moving at the same speed unless a force acts on it to slow it down or speed it up D) states that a planet's velocity is not constant and increases as it gets closer to the Sun E) states that a planet’s orbit is elliptical (stretched circle) and that the extent (eccentricity) of that ellipse varies from planet to planet 49 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test Two 13. Which scientist made contributions to the field of astronomy? A) Aristotle B) Hippocrates C) Hypatia D) Zhang Heng E) None of the above 14. Which scientist discovered that Jupiter had its own moons? A) Galileo Galilei B) Johannes Kepler C) Nicolaus Copernicus D) William Harvey E) None of the above 15. Johannes Kepler _____. A) explained the visual mechanisms of depth perception and proposed designs for eyewear B) discovered that the heart is the pump of the body and drives the circulation of blood C) invented the theodolite to measure angles D) All of the above E) None of the above 16. Which of the following is an accurate definition for Hooke’s law? A) A static object will move if force is exerted on it. B) Gases expand by the same amount with the same rise in temperature. C) The tension in a spring increases in direct proportion to the force applied to it. D) When the pressure of a gas increases, its volume decreases proportionally. E) None of the above 50 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test Two 17. Which of the following is an accurate definition for the law of conservation of charge? A) Acceleration depends on the force exerted and the mass of the object. B) All electrical forces act in pairs that are equal and opposite. C) Electricity can be neither created nor destroyed, but only transferred from one object to another, while its total amount of charge remains the same. D) Gravity is a universal force and that all objects (including celestial ones) exert a gravitational pull on each other. E) A static object will move if electrical force is exerted on it. 18. ________ matter could change in form but could not be created or destroyed. A) Law of conservation of mass states that B) Law of conservation of gas states that C) Phlogiston theory states that D) Uniformitarian process states that E) None of the above 19. Which of the following is an accurate definition of Cuvier’s theory of “correlation of parts”? A) Atoms are indivisible and cannot be created or destroyed. B) The structure of an organ in an animal’s body is related to its function, as are all other organs. C) The total pressure of the combined gases is equal to the sum of its partial pressures. D) A series of sudden events in Earth's history has wiped out certain species. E) Water evaporates from the oceans and falls as rain. 20. Which scientist developed the modern system of letters for atomic symbols? A) Carl Linnaeus B) Gaspard Bauhin C) Georges Cuvier D) Henry Cavendish E) Jons Jacob Berzelius 21. Which scientist published his optical theory in Astronomiae Pars Optica in 1604? A) Johannes Kepler B) Francis Bacon C) Robert Hooke D) Leonardo da Vinci E) Hans Lippershey 51 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test Two 22. Henry Cavendish ________. A) demonstrated that sound cannot travel through a vacuum, but the magnetic forces and light can B) developed the law of conservation of charge C) observed that like charges repel, whereas opposite charges attract, and recorded the difference between conductors and insulators D) provided evidence to prove Charles’ law E) revealed water’s chemical formula - two parts inflammable air (hydrogen) to one part dephlogisticated air (oxygen) 23. Which scientist created the first atomic table featuring all the elements known at the time, each with a pictorial symbol? A) Alessandro Volta B) Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier C) John Dalton D) Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac E) Dmitri Mendeleev 24. Issac Newton ________. A) became the first scientist to understand that it was gravity that controlled the movements of the planets and held them in orbit B) discovered Saturn’s largest moon, as well as correctly describing its rings C) realized that rocks were formed under intense subterranean heat and pressure in a uniformitarian process which made it possible to estimate the age of rock formations D) Both (A) and (B) E) None of the above 25. Robert Hooke ________. A) argued that nebulae are composed of stars, not fluid B) cited ice ages as types of catastrophes that had affected the Earth C) devised an experiment to determine the density of Earth D) Both (A) and (C) E) None of the above 52 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test Two 26. Which scientist built his own short-focal microscopes and was the first person to observe bacteria? A) Antonie Van Leuwenhoek B) Benjamin Jesty C) Edward Jenner D) Robert Hooke E) None of the above 27. A significant contribution in the field of preventive medicine was made by _______. A) Antonie Van Leuwenhoek B) Benjamin Jesty C) Gaspard Bauhin D) Robert Hooke E) None of the above 28. Which scientist made significant contributions in the field of chemistry? A) Benjamin Franklin B) Charles Du Fay C) Henry Cavendish D) John Dalton E) All of the above 29. Who proved that the density of the Earth was five times that of water? A) Christian Huygens B) Henry Cavendish C) Isaac Newton D) James Dutton E) William Herschel 30. Which scientist held demonstrations that transfixed a public eager for electrical thrills? A) Michael Faraday B) Alessandro Volta C) James Clerk Maxwell D) Heinrich Hertz E) Joseph Henry 53 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test Two 31. An ophthalmoscope is ________. A) a piece added to the telescope to increase the distance that is seen B) a tool to ensure that the optics of a telescope are properly calibrated C) a tool to look at the cornea of the eye D) a tool to look at the retina of the eye E) controls different magnifications in a microscope 32. Which scientist discovered that fermentation is caused by living yeast microbes? A) Charles Darwin B) Gregor Mendel C) Hugo de Vries D) Louis Pasteur E) Robert Koch 33. Which of the following descriptions accurately describes the contributions of Michael Faraday? A) Built the most powerful electromagnetics in the world, and pioneered the technology that led to the electric telegraph. B) Discovered new organic compounds and became the first to liquify a permanent gas. C) Produced and patented a practical telephone. D) All of the above E) None of the above 34. Which of the following descriptions accurately describes the contributions of James Prescott Joule? A) Designed the Difference Engine. B) Examined expansion and temperature changed in gases and led to the pioneering work in refrigeration. C) Proposed that electromagnetic energy could produce continuous motion creating the first electric motor. D) Solved the problem of how the elements are related to each other. E) None of the above 54 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test Two 35. The first commercially viable telephone was patented in ________. A) 1821 B) 1846 C) 1859 D) 1876 E) 1900 36. ________ believed that painting was a science. A) Carl Linnaeus B) Edward Jenner C) Georges Cuvier D) Leonardo da Vinci E) Robert Hooke 37. “Why should that apple always descend perpendicular to the ground” is said to be stated by ________. A) Christian Huygens B) Henry Cavendish C) Isaac Newton D) James Hutton E) William Herschel 38. Whose naming system of living organisms is still used 250 years later? A) Carl Linnaeus B) Gaspard Bauhin C) Georges Cuvier D) John Dalton E) Jons Jacob Berzelius 39. Who tested his early vaccine on his 11-month-old son? A) Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek B) Benjamin Jesty C) Edward Jenner D) Robert Hooke E) None of the above 55 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test Two 40. Charles Darwin stated, “This preservation of favorable variations and the rejection of injurious variations, I call ________.” A) common ancestor B) evolution C) generation D) natural selection E) dominant traits 41. Mendeleev’s idea of the periodic table came from thinking about the game ________. A) poker B) solitaire C) gin rummy D) 21 E) whist 42. Although his work mostly impacted the area of physics, ________ built a compound microscope with a screw-based mechanism which allowed the viewer to focus. A) Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek B) Christiaan Huygens C) Issac Newton D) Robert Hooke E) Benjamin Franklin 43. ________ discovered more than 500 nebulae and 3,000 double stars in the northern hemisphere. A) Johannes Kepler B) John Henry C) John Herschel D) William Herschel E) None of the above 44. The first colored photograph of a tartan ribbon was produced in 1861 by ________. A) Charles Babbage B) James Clerk Maxwell C) James Prescott Joule D) Joseph Henry E) Michael Faraday 56 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test Two 45. ________ conducted groundbreaking work in the areas of surgery and nautical engineering. A) Alexander Graham Bell B) Claudius Galenus C) Hugo de Vries D) Louis Pasteur E) Robert Koch 46. Which of the following represents the correct order based on the formalized structure of taxonomy? A) domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order B) domain, kingdom, phylum, order, class C) kingdom, domain, order, phylum, class D) kingdom, domain, phylum order, class E) None of the above 47. ________ stated that “our observations of the stars make it evident that the Earth is circular.” A) Apollonius B) Aristotle C) Hypatia D) Thales of Miletus E) None of the above 48. A triquetrum was used by ___ to measure the altitudes of the stars and planets. A) Galileo Galilei B) Hans Lippershey C) Johannes Kepler D) Nicolaus Copernicus E) Tycho Brahe 49. Who was responsible for the design and artistry work that aided Christopher Wren in the restoration of the City of London? A) Benjamin Franklin B) James Hutton C) Leonardo da Vinci D) Robert Hooke E) None of the above 57 2025 IT Science Study Guide Practice Test Two 50. Which highly specialized life forms in the Galapagos Islands inspired Charles Darwin’s initial discovery? A) Galapagos finches and marine iguanas B) Galapagos finches and plants C) Galapagos finches and tortoises D) marine iguanas and plants E) None of the above 58 ANSWER KEYS 59 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 1: The Dawn of Science – Answer Key Chapter 1: The Dawn of Science (650 BC-1450) Vocabulary empirical (proof) - originating in or based on observation or experience (6) hypothesis - a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences (6) heliocentric - relating to the sun at the center (7) logic - the science of the formal principles of reasoning; all findings should be based on observation and reasoning (14) lyceum - a hall for public lectures; school (14) metaphysics - abstract philosophical studies (16) inertia - force changes motion but is not essential to sustain it (17) polymath - a person of encyclopedic learning (19) pi (π) - ratio of a circle’s circumference to its diameter (19) armillary sphere - an old astronomical instrument composed of rings showing the positions of important circles of the celestial sphere (22) seismoscope - an instrument for recording only the time or fact of occurrence of earthquakes (22) seismograph - an apparatus to measure and record vibrations within the earth and of the ground (22) humors - bodily fluids that caused a person to be sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, or melancholic (26) conic section - produced when a plane intersects a cone resulting in a circle, ellipse, parabola or hyperbola (30) astrolabe - a compact instrument used to observe and calculate the position of celestial bodies before the invention of the sextant (30) hydrometer - an instrument for determining the specific gravity of a liquid (32) optics - a science that deals with the genesis and propagation of light and the changes that it undergoes and produces (36) 60 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 1: The Dawn of Science – Answer Key Review Questions 1. Early scientists made fundamental errors due to the fact that they didn’t rely on empirical evidence in their scientific ideas. (6) 2. Describe the scientific method: hypothesis is proposed systematically tested evaluated on the strength of the results (6) 3. Whose electromagnetism studies led to the invention of the electric motor? Michael Faraday (7) 4. What was the name of the group of intellectuals from the 7th and 6th centuries BCE that included Thales of Miletus? Seven Wise Men of Antiquity (11) 5. How was Thales able to measure the height of an Egyptian pyramid? He measured the length of his own shadow and that of the pyramid at the same time of day; then applied the ratio he found between his shadow length and his height to that of the pyramid’s shadow. (12) 6. What were Aristotle’s publications on animal studies? On the Parts of Animals and The Generation of Animals (14) 7. How did Aristotle disprove the long-held belief that the Earth was flat? He observed several lunar eclipses and noted that the Earth’s shadow on the Moon was always curved. (16) 8. What was Archimedes’ screw? a device for pumping water up from the bilges of ships (20) 9. Describe Zhang Heng’s seismoscope. a vessel with dragon heads around its sides that would drop a ball into a frog’s mouth on detection of Earth tremors. (22) 10. How did medical science benefit from Claudius Galenus working as physician to the Roman gladiators? gladiators’ wounds were as “windows into the body” which gave him valuable insight into anatomy (25) 11. What subjects did Hypatia’s father encourage her to study? mathematics, astronomy, astrology and philosophy (30) 61 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 1: The Dawn of Science – Answer Key 12. What did Socrates have to say about Hypatia? She made such attainments in literature and science as to far surpass all the philosophers of her own time. (32) 13. Who wrote the Almagest and Geographica? Ptolemy (33) 14. Who is known as the father of algebra? Al-Khwarizmi (34) 15. Why was Alhazen under house arrest in Egypt? He had promised to dam the Nile River for the Caliph, but failed. (36) 16. What was considered Hildegard of Bingen’s most complex work? her Book of Divine Works (37) 17. Who was the author of the first printed mathematics textbook? What was the title? Euclid; Elements of Geometry (38) 18. Completed in 77 CE, who wrote the book Natural History and what did it contain? Pliny the Elder; ancient knowledge in botany, astronomy, geography, zoology and medicine. (38) 19. Identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Medicine Claudius Galenus Spoke of the importance of dissection and observation; discovered (Galen) the function of many organs. Believed that the body has three connecting systems: brain and nerves; heart and arteries; liver and veins. Corrected misconceptions: the kidney makes urine; the heart has valves; the arteries carry blood. He discovered that the spinal cord transmits messages to the brain and identifies which nerves are involved in movement and speech. (26) Hippocrates Thought that illness was a result of imbalances in the four humors (sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, or melancholic), and that it was the physician's role to restore that balance. Founded a medical school in Kos where students swore an oath to maintain high ethical standards (confidentiality and nonmaleficence). (26-27) Hildegard of Bingen Her work on blood circulation and mental health was advanced for the time. She prescribed herbs and botanical tonics as both prevention and cure of specific diseases. She believed that ill health was caused by an imbalance of the four humors - blood, yellow bile, black bile and phlegm. (37) 62 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 1: The Dawn of Science – Answer Key 20. Identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Mathematics Archimedes The first to calculate the approximate value of pi and set out to calculate the volume of geometrical solids. Discovered how to measure the volume of irregular objects. (19-20) Eratosthenes Devised a reliable method of calculating prime numbers. Accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth. (21) Zhang Heng Devised his own calculation of the formula of pi. (22) Hypatia Explained one of the most important functions of geometry: conic sections (produced when a plane intersects a cone resulting in a circle, ellipse, parabola or hyperbola). (30) Al-Khwarizmi Wrote the foundational textbook on algebra; gave the first systematic explanation of the symbols and methods used to solve equations. (34) 21. identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Astronomy Thales of Miletus Made the cosmological proposition that Earth exists as a flat disk. Believed that the nature of the universe came from a single substance: water. (12) Aristotle Disproved that the Earth was flat by observing lunar eclipses. He noted that the Earth’s shadow on the moon was always curved. (16) Pythagoras Contributions included the idea that the Earth and the planets orbit around a central “hearth.” (13) Eratosthenes Drew maps of the world, calculated the distance of the Earth to the Sun. (21) Zhang Heng Concluded that the Moon and planets did not produce light, but reflected it from the Sun, and that the Universe and planets were spherical. He mapped the stars and planets. (22) Ptolemy He devised several armillary spheres for measuring the angles of the stars, planets, and the Sun. (33) 63 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 1: The Dawn of Science – Answer Key 22. Identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Scientific Practices Thales of Miletus Used observation rather than mythology to understand the natural world. Invented empirical science and is known as the founder of Western philosophy. (11) Aristotle Realized that rational thinking was fundamental to science. Developed an ordered approach to logical reasoning. He understood that science requires practical data gained by observation. Father of many sciences. (14, 16) Alhazen Pioneered the now standard scientific method of proposing hypotheses and then testing them through experiments. (36) 23. What were the significant scientific contributions of the following scientists? Scientist Contribution (not related to areas described in questions 19-22) Archimedes Militaristic use of “Archimedes principle” to build a 2,000 man ship with a system of levers and pulleys for launching the vessel (gift to Ptolemy III). Invented the Claw of Archimedes: a mechanical hook designed to lift an enemy ship by the prow, throwing sailors into the sea and capsizing or damaging the vessel. (20) Aristotle Set up Lyceum in Athens which became the first institution to offer a comprehensive education in all areas of knowledge. (17) Theophrastus Special interest in botany, describing over 500 species. Successor to Aristotle in Lyceum. (16) Zhang Heng Designed a nonmagnetic compass and developed an instrument that recorded the direction in which an earthquake had occurred; regarded as the first seismoscope. (22) 64 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 1: The Dawn of Science – Answer Key 24. Match the date with the corresponding findings. Scientific Finding Date of Discovery _____Archimedes designs Syracusia, a giant ship built as a gift for A. 130 CE Ptolemy III of Egypt. (C; 19) B. 132 CE _____Building of a seismic device that is able to record distant earthquakes. (B; 22) C. 240 BCE _____Founding of Lyceum; Aristotle begins researching and D. 335 BCE writing many of his treatises. (D; 14) _____Zheng Heng calculates pi as 3.162. (A; 22) Science Jeopardy 25. His gift to Ptolemy III, Syracusia, weighed over 4,000 tons. Who is: Archimedes (20-21) 26. This world traveler became the personal physician for the emperor Marcus Aurelis. Who is: Claudius Galenus (25-26) 27. This Muslim scholar developed the Hindu-Arabic number system. Who is: Al-Khwarizmi (34) 28. Correctly predicted an eclipse and was credited with discovering five geometric theorems. Who is: Thales of Miletus (13) 29. A leading authority on medieval pharmacology, she prescribed herbs and botanical tonics to cure specific diseases. Who is: Hildegard of Bingen (37) 30. This scientist helped revise 13 books of Euclid’s Elements. (30, 33) Who is: Hypatia (33) 31. This Greek philosopher and scientist identified 500 living species. Who is: Aristotle (14, 16) 32. This scientist designed a nonmagnetic compass. Who is: Zhang Heng (22) 33. An innovator that was tasked with regulating the flow of the River Nile but it proved impossible. Who is: Alhazen (36) 65 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 2: Scientific Revolution – Answer Key Chapter 2: Scientific Revolution (1450-1650) Vocabulary physiology - a branch of biology that deals with the functions and activities of life or of living matter (43) theodolite - optical device to measure angles (45) geocentric - having or relating to the earth as center (46) principle of inertia - a moving object will keep moving at the same speed unless a force acts on it to slow it down or speed it up (53) Kepler’s first law of planetary motion - a planet’s orbit is elliptical (stretched circle) and that the extent (eccentricity) of that ellipse varies from planet to planet (58) Kepler’s second law of planetary motion - a planet's velocity is not constant and increases as it gets closer to the Sun (58) Kepler’s third law of planetary motion - the orbital period of each planet is dependent on its average distance from the sun (58) capillaries - transfer blood from the arteries to the veins (61) 66 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 2: Scientific Revolution – Answer Key Review Questions 1. What did Leonardo da Vinci think was a vital tool for inquiry? observation (43) 2. What was different about the cartographic surveys that da Vinci made in 1502? He used an aerial perspective rather than the traditional oblique view. He paced out roads and squares to measure distance and used a theolodite to measure angles. (45) 3. What was the main problem with the geocentric model of the universe? It didn’t account for the fact that many planets appeared to turn back in their orbits. (47-48) 4. Why was Galileo’s discovery of Jupiter’s moons startling? It went against the concept of a geocentric model of the universe. Jupiter’s moons were clearly orbiting Jupiter, not Earth. (52) 5. What did Johannes Kepler determine about a planet’s year (orbital period) and its distance from the Sun? He calculated the orbital period for each planet, and in comparing them realized that if a planet is twice as far from the Sun as another planet, then its orbital period will be three times long than that of the nearer planet. (58) 6. Before William Harvey’s work on blood circulation, what were the beliefs about circulation? Galen, the Greek medical practitioner believed that blood was made in the liver and was sucked from the veins by the heart. (61) 7. How did William Harvey explain the way blood flows in the veins? one-way valves ensure that blood flows in only one direction (61) 8. What did scientist William Gilbert conclude about the Earth? that it is a giant magnetic (62-63) 9. How did Francis Bacon outline his scientific method? make an observation, develop a theory that might explain that observation, and test it using experiments (63) 10. Who created the first barometer? What does a barometer measure? Evangelista Torricelli; atmospheric pressure (63) 67 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 2: Scientific Revolution – Answer Key 11. Identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Astronomy Nicolaus Copernicus’s Sun-centered model, heliocentric, placed the Sun at the Copernicus center of the Universe, with the Earth and all the planets orbiting it in a fixed order. (48) Galileo Galilei His improved telescope allowed him to discover the mountains and craters in the moon, and that Venus changed shape in crescent phases. He discovered that Jupiter had its own moons; was convinced that the planets orbit the sun. (52) Johannes Kepler Developed the three laws of planetary motion (see vocabulary list above). Kepler’s laws gave credence to the heliocentric view of the Universe and ensured its wide acceptance. (58) 12. Identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Mathematics Leonardo da Vinci Enhanced the newly invented theodolite to measure angles, achieving an accuracy that had never been seen before. (45) Leonardo Fibonacci Devised the Fibonacci sequence, in which each number is the sum of the two preceding it: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8. (44) 13. Identify the significant contributions by the individual scientists in the following field: Medicine Leonardo da Vinci The content of his notebooks revealed accurate anatomical interpretations. (43-45) Johannes Kepler Explained the visual mechanics of depth perception and proposing designs for eyewear to combat near- and farsightedness. (58) William Harvey Discovered that the heart is a pump and that it drives the circulation of the blood. He accurately predicted the existence of capillaries completing the blood circulation around the body. (61) 68 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 2: Scientific Revolution – Answer Key 14. Match the date with the corresponding findings. Scientific Finding Date of Discovery _____Brahe observed a new star in the constellation of Cassiopeia F. 1490 and determined to accurately record celestial bodies. (C; 58) _____Galileo discovered the moons of Jupiter. (E; 51) G. 1514 _____Leonardo da Vinci’s sketch of a flying machine; “ornithopter.” H. 1577 (A; 43) _____Publication of Astronomia Nova, describing Kepler’s first two I. 1609 laws of planetary motion. (D; 58) _____Copernicus privately circulated a handwritten pamphlet that J. 1610 proposed an alternative theory of planetary motion; heliocentric. (B; 48) Science Jeopardy 15. This scientist dissected both dead and living animals. Who is: William Harvey (61) 16. This Polish astronomer challenged the prevailing view of the world by suggesting that the Sun, rather than the Earth, is at the center of the Universe. Who is: Nicolaus Copernicus (46) 17. Dissected 30 corpses to study human anatomy. Who is: Leonardo da Vinci (45) 18. His telescope magnified normal vision by a factor of 20. Who is: Galileo Galilei (53) 19. This German astronomer and mathematician discovered that Saturn takes roughly 29 Earth years to orbit the Sun. Who is: Johannes Kepler (58) 69 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 3: Reason and Enlightenment – Answer Key Chapter 3: Reason and Enlightenment (1650-1800) Vocabulary Boyle’s law - when the pressure of a gas increases, its volume decreases proportionally (68) element - a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler constituents (68) Charles’s law - gases expand by the same amount with the same rise in temperature (68) Gay-Lussac’s law - pressure of a given mass of gas varies directly with the absolute temperature of the gas, when its volume is kept constant (68) Hooke’s law - the tension in a spring increases in direct proportion to the force applied to it (72) Newton’s first law of motion - a static object will move if force is exerted on it (78) Newton’s second law of motion - acceleration depends on the force exerted and the mass of the object (78) Newton’s third law of motion - all forces act in pairs that are equal and opposite (78) Newton’s law of gravity - gravity is a universal force and that all objects (including celestial ones) exert a gravitational pull on each other (78) law of the conservation of charge - electricity could be neither created nor destroyed, but only transferred from one object to another, while its total amount of charge remains the same (84) binomial nomenclature - organism with a two-part Latin name which included the genus and the species (88) taxonomy - the study of the general principles of scientific classification (88) rock strata - layers of sedimentary rock which form from weathering, erosion, deposition, compaction, and cementation (93) uniformitarian process - occurs at the same rate today as it has always done (93) phlogiston theory - all combustible matter contained an odorless and colorless substance called “phlogiston” (96) nebulae - clouds of gas and dust (99) law of conservation of mass - matter could change in form but could not be created or destroyed (102) 70 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 3: Reason and Enlightenment – Answer Key variolation - the deliberate inoculation of an uninfected person with the smallpox virus (106) hydrologic cycle - water evaporates from the oceans and falls as rain (111) Dalton’s law of partial pressures - the total pressure of the combined gases is equal to the sum of its partial pressures (112) Dalton’s atomic theory - atoms are indivisible and could not be created or destroyed (112) correlation of parts - structure of an organ in an animal’s body was related to its function, as were all other organs (116) theory of catastrophism - series of sudden events in the Earth’s history has wiped out certain species (116) 71 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 3: Reason and Enlightenment – Answer Key Review Questions 1. Robert Boyle was part of a group of scientists called the Experimental Philosophy Club. What was their purpose? They bought equipment they needed to perform experiments and shared their results with each other. (67) 2. What did Robert Boyle’s experiments on the properties of air using a vacuum chamber determine? Sound cannot travel through a vacuum, but magnetic forces and light can. Combustion cannot occur in a vacuum. (67) 3. How did Robert Hooke improve the microscope? He built a compound microscope with a new screw-based mechanism to enable the viewer to focus. He also devised a way to illuminate the specimen under the lens. (72) 4. What did Isaac Newton use to split the light to show that light is made up of multiple colors? clear prisms (77) 5. How did Isaac Newton design his reflecting telescope? He used mirrors instead of lenses to reflect light and create a sharper image than had previously been possible. (78) 6. Why was it important that Ben Franklin charted the Gulf Stream? so ships could avoid it to speed their passage (83) 7. List some of Benjamin Franklin’s inventions. lightning rod heat efficient stove bifocal glasses glass armonica (musical instrument) 8. What was Carl Linnaeus’s most significant contribution to the field of botany? He provided each organism with a two-part Latin name which included the genus and the species. (88) 9. What did James Hutton conclude about the way that rocks are formed? They form under intense subterranean heat and pressure in a “uniformitarian” process (occurs as it always has) (93) 10. After studying the work of Henry Cavendish and others on gas chemistry, who developed the world’s first hydrogen-filled balloon? Jacques Charles (94) 11. What did Henry Cavendish discover about water? That it is not a single distinct substance, but a compound of two gases, later determined to be two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen. (96) 72 2025 IT Science Study Guide Chapter 3: Reason and Enlightenment – Answer Key 12. What planet was discovered by William Herschel? Uranus (99) 13. Why was William Herschel considered one of the greatest visual astronomers of all time? His skills as a telescope builder and his meticulous observations of the night sky. (99) 14. How did Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier advance the study of the composition of water and air? definitively stated that water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen; determined that air contains oxygen and “azote” (later called nitrogen) (102-103) 15. Whose experiments revealed that electricity can be generated chemically as well as by friction? Alessandro Volta (105) 16. How did Edward Jenner discover the principle of vaccination? He gave patients the cowpox virus to fight smallpox. Discovered that when the body is invaded by a virus, it produces antibodies which protect against re-infection. (108) 17. What two initial discoveries did John Dalton make about atmospheric gases? 1. the pressure of a volume of gas in a container depends on its temperature. 2. given sufficient pressure and low temperature all gases become liquid. (111- 112) 18. How did Georges Cuvier determine that animal extinctions occur? By comparing the bones of elephants with fossilized mammoth bones Cuvier was able to conclude that the mammoth was an extinct species. (115-116) 19. Who discovered the process of metamorphosis and how was it determined? Jan Swammerdam; he dissected an egg, larva, pupa and adult under a microscope showing they were simply different forms of the same animal. 20. What did Joseph Black di

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