Reading Models and Schema Theory PDF

MODELS OF READING AND SCHEMA THEORY MODELS OF READING A reading model explains what happens in the readers’ mind when they are reading a text. A framework that provides general understanding of the reading comprehension process. It is a tool used to support reading instruction. Differen...

MODELS OF READING AND SCHEMA THEORY MODELS OF READING A reading model explains what happens in the readers’ mind when they are reading a text. A framework that provides general understanding of the reading comprehension process. It is a tool used to support reading instruction. Different models focus on strategies to target reading skills for a variety of learners. MODELS OF READING Metaphorical models of reading Specific models of reading  The most common way to discuss models of reading.  Often used to capture the many processes and concepts involved in reading comprehension.  Represent generalizations that reflect primary processing assumptions about how comprehension is carried out. MODELS OF READING Metaphorical models of Specific models of reading reading  Psycholinguistic Guessing  Bottom-up models Game Model  Top-down models  Interactive  Interactive models Compensatory Model  Word recognition models  Simple View of reading Model BOTTOM-UP MODEL   Reading begins with the eyes identifying visual information from the reading text.  Reading is perceived as a serial BOTTOM- process, beginning from left to right and readers first identify a letter at a UP time.  The identification of letters is followed MODEL by the identification of sounds.  Lexical items are then identified.  Then, phrases and clauses and sentences are constructed based on the syntactic information available.   According to Browne (1998), this model describes reading as a process that starts with the learner’s knowledge of letters, sounds and words and how these words are formed to make sentences.  This model is called part to whole model because it goes from partial to whole knowledge. BOTTOM-  This model is so effective in the early UP childhood, especially students as young learners. MODEL  It’s effective because the emphasis here is on the letters, recognition of their shapes and reading individual words.  However, this model has many disadvantages if used for higher levels since it forgets the reader’s expectations, experience, and attitudes.  Furthermore, it doesn’t pay attention to the context since it only encourages remembering BOTTOM-UP MODEL  Reader builds meaning from the smallest units of meaning to achieve comprehension.  Example: letters > letter clusters > words > phrases > sentences > longer text > meaning = comprehension.  Reading is regarded as a process of “decoding”, which moves from the bottom to the top of the system of language.  BOTTOM-UP KNOWLEDGE Linguistic knowledge is used. Sentences/ Bottom up Knowledge of the:  conventions of print. Phrases  way words look. Words  relationship between Morphemes sounds and letters. Phonemes IN SUMMARY, Bottom - up model:  Emphasizes the written or printed texts  Reading is driven by text / Text - driven  Comprehension begins by processing the smallest linguistics unit, and working towards larger units  Proceeds from part to whole.  IN SUMMARY, Bottom - up model:  Concept: This model focuses on decoding text from the smallest units (letters and sounds) to larger units (words and sentences). It emphasizes the importance of phonics and letter-sound relationships.  Process: Readers first identify letters and sounds, then blend them into words, and finally understand sentences and texts.  Strengths: It’s effective for developing basic reading skills, especially for early readers and those learning to read in a new language. PROBLEMS WITH BOTTOM- UP MODEL  Spelling to sound correspondences are complex and unpredictable.  Serial processing of every letter in a text would slows reading up to the point where it would be very difficult for meaning to be retained.  Readers would forget the beginning of a sentence before they have reached the end.  In order to assign a phonemic value to a grapheme it is often necessary to know the meaning of the word containing the grapheme. CAN YOU READ THIS? I cdnuolt blveiee that I cluod aulaclty uesdnatnrd what I was rdanieg. The phaonmneal pweor of the hmuan mnid, aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it dseno't mtaetr in what oerdr the ltteres in a word are, the olny iproamtnt tihng is that the frsit and last ltteer be in the rghit pclae. The rset can be a taotl mses and you can still raed it whotuit a pboerlm. This is bcuseaethe huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the word as a wlohe. Azanmig huh? Yaeh and I awlyas tghuhot slpeling was ipmorantt! If you can raed this forwrad. TOP-DOWN MODEL  TOP-DOWN MODEL  Conceptual knowledge is mainly responsible for forming hypotheses and construct meaning.  Reading is conceptually driven because it starts with what readers bring to the text (reader’s prior knowledge, experiences, culture, attitude, mind-set) and works its way down to the print.  Readers will use their non-visual information to select minimum visual cues and meaning is achieved through the use of such higher-level information.  Readers start reading by using their knowledge of the language and the subject matter to predict the text.  Readers construct meaning from the text; made from the whole (text) to the parts (words).   It is also called inside-out model and whole to part model, involves the reader’s experience and what he/she brings to the reading material.  Usually, readers approach a text with a certain purpose and certain expectations. TOP-  They will make predictions by asking DOWN questions about the text and then, select information which answers their questions. MODEL  Meaning lies in the reader’s mind instead on the printed text, for the main emphasis is on the reader who plays the main role of using higher-order of processing to extract meaning rather than relying on the printed text. TOP-DOWN MODEL  Browne (1998) clarified that, ‘this model suggests that readers begin to read by drawing on what they know about the structure and the meaningfulness of language, the structure of stories and other genres and their knowledge of the world to predict the general meaning and specific words in context.’  This model is broader and more realistic.  This model also encourages guessing. prediction-check process According to Goodman (1971:260): …. Reading is a psycholinguistic guessing game. It involves an interaction between thought and language. Efficient reading does not result from precise perception and identification of all element but from the skill in selecting the fewest, most productive guesses which are right for the first time.  The learner uses pre-existing knowledge (schema) of topic/field, cultural understandings & life experiences to make out what makes sense. IN SUMMARY, Top-down model:  Emphasizes what readers bring to the text, such as prior knowledge and experiences  Comprehension begins in the mind of the reader, who has some ideas about the meaning of the text  Meaning is brought to print, not derived from print.  Proceeds from whole to part. IN SUMMARY, Top-down model:  Emphasizes what readers bring to the text, such as prior knowledge and experiences  Comprehension begins in the mind of the reader, who has some ideas about the meaning of the text  Meaning is brought to print, not derived from print.  Proceeds from whole to part. IN SUMMARY, Top-down model:  Concept: This model emphasizes the role of background knowledge, context, and expectations in reading. It suggests that readers use their knowledge and predictions to interpret text.  Process: Readers start with a general understanding or expectation about the text and use that to make sense of individual words and sentences.  Strengths: It helps with comprehension and making inferences, especially with complex or unfamiliar texts, by integrating context and prior knowledge BOTTOM-UP VS. TOP- DOWN MODELS Aspect Bottom-Up Model Top-Down Model Decoding from letters and Using background knowledge Focus sounds to words and and context to interpret text. sentences. - Make predictions about text. - Identify letters and sounds. - Use context to adjust Process - Blend sounds into words. understanding. - Understand sentences. - Integrate new information. - Develops basic reading - Enhances comprehension of Strengths skills. complex texts. - Ensures accurate decoding. - Utilizes prior knowledge. - Can lead to - Less emphasis on context. misunderstandings if context is Limitation - May not fully address misinterpreted. s comprehension. - Relies heavily on background knowledge.  Bottom-Up Aspect Top-Down Model Model Builds Starts with a big- Approach understanding picture to from smallest understanding and Reading details to the refines details. whole. Useful for Ideal for learning Usefulnes interpreting phonics and basic s complex texts and reading skills. applying context. I am currently visiting Ukraine for a CELTA course, and will stay here for two months. I don’t speak Ukrainian or Russian, and most of the written stimuli that I’ve been having is in one of these languages. To make matters worse, the alphabet used in this country is different from my own: everything is written in cyrillic script, with which I am familiar, but definitely not 100% comfortable with.... I was walking to work and saw this sign. I immediately knew what it was about because of my background knowledge on this topic: Having been to gyms before, I know that this has some of the characteristics of a local gym ad: two muscular, hourglass figures, rejoicing, arms up in the air as a sign of victory. This is an example of how top-down processing takes place: to comprehend a text, we may start from meaning, bringing our background knowledge and ideas to help us decode a message and overcome linguistic difficulties we may encounter. (Zakime, 2019) I wanted to be absolutely sure that, if I followed that arrow, I would end up in a gym. So I unconsciously started processing the information from the bottom up. I don’t know the Cyrillic alphabet, but I know Greek. Some letters are the same; and some letters are the same as in the Latin alphabet. So I started looking at the words to make sure I understood the message on that sign: In this case, I’m using bottom-up processing:  I’m looking at clues in the text to better comprehend it. These clues can be semantic, syntactic, phonological (in spoken texts). In this example, I needed to identify individual letters to reach word level. I recognised some of the words, and confirmed that the sign would actually take me to a gym! (Zakime, 2019) INTERACTIVE MODEL  INTERACTIVE MODEL OF READING Currently accepted as the most comprehensive description of reading process. Two conceptions of Interactive process : 1) The interaction that occurs between the reader and the text - as readers interact with the text, their own background knowledge facilitates the task of comprehending. 2) The interaction between bottom-up and top-down processes - fluent reading involves both decoding and interpretation skills. Good readers are both decoders and good interpreters of the text.  Interactive process : The interaction between bottom-up and top-down processes simultaneously throughout the reading process.  Interactive process : The interaction that occurs between the reader and the text Emerald Dechant: The interactive model suggests that the reader constructs meaning by the selective use of information from all sources of meaning (graphemic, phonemic, morphemic, syntax, semantics) without adherence to any one set order. The reader simultaneously uses all levels of processing even though one source of meaning can be primary at a given time. (Dechant, 1991) Kenneth Goodman: An interactive model is one which uses print as input and has meaning as output. But the reader provides input, too, and the reader, interacting with the text, is selective in using just as little of the cues from text as necessary to construct meaning. (Goodman, K., 1981)  Interactive process : The interaction that occurs between the reader and the text David E. Rumelhart: Reading is at once a perceptual and a cognitive process. It is a process which bridges and blurs these two traditional distinctions. Moreover, a skilled reader must be able to make use of sensory, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic information to accomplish the task. These various sources of information appear to interact in many complex ways during the process of reading (Rumelhart, D. 1985). IN SUMMARY, Interactive model:  Concept: This model integrates aspects of both bottom-up and top-down approaches. It posits that reading involves a dynamic interplay between decoding text and using context and prior knowledge.  Process: Readers simultaneously use phonics (bottom-up) and context clues (top-down) to make sense of the text. They constantly adjust their understanding based on the interaction between decoding and comprehension.  Strengths: It provides a comprehensive approach to reading, accommodating different types of texts and reading challenges by balancing both decoding and meaning-making strategies. SCHEMA THEORY SCHEMA THEORY It refers to a mental framework humans use to represent and organise remembered information. Schemata (“the building blocks of cognition”) present our personal simplified view over reality derived from our experience and prior knowledge, they enable us to recall, modify our behavior, concentrate attention on key information), or try to predict most likely outcomes of events. SCHEMA THEORY According to David Rumelhart, “schemata can represent knowledge at all levels - from ideologies and cultural truths to knowledge about the meaning of a particular word, to knowledge about what patterns of excitations are associated with what letters of the alphabet. We have schemata to represent all levels of our experience, at all levels of abstraction. Finally, our schemata are our knowledge. All of our generic knowledge is embedded in schemata.” Schemata also expand and change in time, due to acquisition of new information, but deeply installed schemata are inert and slow in changing.  an explanation to why some people live with incorrect or inconsistent beliefs rather then, changing them. When new information is retrieved, if possible, it will be assimilated into existing schema(ta) or related schema(ta) will be changed For example:(accommodated) in order to - During schooling process, a child learns about mammals and integrate the new information. develops corresponding schema. - When a child hears that a porpoise is a mammal as well, it first tries to fit it into the mammals’ schema: it's warm-blooded, air- breathing, is born with hair and gives live birth. - Yet it lives in water unlike most mammals and so the mammals’ schema has to be accommodated to fit in the new information. SCHEMA THEORY According to schema theory, reading involves more or less simultaneous analysis at many different levels. The levels include graphophonemic, morphemic, semantic, syntactic, pragmatic and interpretive (cueing systems) This means that analysis does not proceed in a strict order from the visual information in letters to the overall interpretation of Graphophonemic a text. refers to the relationship between graphemes (written symbols or letters) and phonemes (the sounds they represent). This concept is crucial in understanding how written text is decoded into spoken language and is a foundational element of phonics TYPES OF SCHEMA TYPES OF SCHEMA Three major types of schema:  Linguistics schemata  Formal schemata  Content schemata These schemata are closely related to reading comprehension. TYPES OF SCHEMA Linguistic schema  Readers’ existing language proficiency in vocabulary, grammar and idioms. They are the foundation of other schemata.  It plays a basic role in a comprehensive understanding of the text.  Eskey (1988, p. 94) claims that "good readers are both decoders and interpreters of texts, their decoding skills becoming more automatic but no less important as their reading skill develops".  Without linguistic schemata, it is impossible for the reader to decode and comprehend a text.  Therefore, the more linguistic schemata a reader has in his mind, the faster the reader acquires information and the better understanding the reader may get. TYPES OF SCHEMA Formal schema  The organizational forms and rhetorical structures of written texts.  They include knowledge of different text types and genres, and also include the knowledge that different types of texts use text organization, language structures, vocabulary, grammar and level of formality differently  “Background knowledge of the formal, rhetorical organizational structures of different types of texts" (Carrel and Eisterhold, 1983, p.79)..  Different kinds of texts and discourse (e.g. stories, description, letters, reports, poems) are distinguished by the ways in which the topic, propositions, and other information are linked together to form a unit. TYPES OF SCHEMA Formal schema  Readers use their schematic representations of the text such as fictions, poems, essays, newspaper articles, academic articles in magazines and journals to help comprehend the information in the text.  Studies show that the knowledge of what type and genre the text is can facilitate reading comprehension for readers because the type of the text will offer detailed evidence of the content of the text.  Text types differ in terms of their communicative functions, the way information is organised and presented, in their syntax, grammar and vocabulary and in the way ideas are related to each other.  Nonetheless, compared with the linguistic and content schemata, the formal schemata offer less power in the reading process (Carrell, 1984). TYPES OF SCHEMA Content schema  "background knowledge of the content area of the text" (Carreli and Eisterhold, 1983, p.80) or the topic the text talks about.  They include topic familiarity, cultural knowledge and previous experience with a field.  Content schema are largely culture-specific. Therefore, cultural schema is usually categorized as content schema - Richard et al. (2000, p.117) define culture as "the total set of beliefs, attitudes, customs, behavior, social habits, etc., of the members of a particular society".  TEXT TYPES Calendars. Pamphlets. Graffiti on walls. Addresses. Product labels. Children’s Phone books. Washing scribbling. Name cards. instructions. Informal letters. Bank Short stories. Business letters. statements. Novels. Rules and Credit cards. Plays. regulations. Maps. Poems. Electronic mail. Anecdotes. Handbooks. Telegrams. Weather Clothes size Fax messages. forecast. labels. Junk mail. TEXT TYPES Advertisements. Postcards. Journal articles. Posters. Credit cards. Song lyrics. Travel guides. Comic books. Film subtitles. Cookbooks. Newspapers. Diagrams. Repair manuals. Flowcharts. Application forms. Name tags Memos. Time schedules. Store catalogues. Street signs. Magazines. Syllabi. Radio/TV guides. (adapted from Gebhard, 1996: 189). TYPES OF SCHEMA Content schema  Content schemata deal with the knowledge relative to the content domain of the text, which is the key to the understanding of texts.  Since one language is not only the simple combination of vocabulary, sentence structure and grammar but also the bearer of different levels of the language’s culture.  To some extent, content schemata can make up for the lack of language schemata, and thus help learners understand texts by predicting, choosing information and removing ambiguities.  For example, schema for going to a restaurant would include information about services, menus, ordering dishes, paying the bill (giving a tip), and so on. TYPES OF SCHEMA Content schema  Many studies show that readers’ content schemata influence their reading comprehension more greatly than formal schemata.  On the whole, the familiarity of the topic has a direct influence on readers’ comprehension.  The more the reader knows about the topic, the more easily and quickly he gets the information of the text.  Therefore, if one wants to be an efficient reader, he needs to try to know the knowledge about more fields and topics.  Learners with more prior knowledge can better comprehend and remember more the text. SCHEMA THEORY & READING COMPREHENSION SCHEMATA & COMPREHENSION  Schema theory helps to explain how readers use prior knowledge to comprehend and learn from text.  Comprehending a text is an interactive process between the reader’s background knowledge and the text.  Efficient comprehension requires the ability to relate the textual material to one's own knowledge. SCHEMATA & COMPREHENSION Rumelhart (1984) suggests several features of schemata that may influence comprehension. 1. SS will not be able to hypothesize text content if they lack schemata for such topics. 2. SS will not be able to access schemata if they lack the schemata for the language of the text. 3. SS may find schemata activated and perceive meaning however, their meaning may be different from that intended by the author. LINGUISTIC SCHEMATA AND READING COMPREHENSION As the basis of comprehension, language knowledge plays an important role on understanding of the text, especially for learners at the elementary stage of learning.  Without basic language knowledge, no reading strategy or skill can function effectively.  Therefore, the more language schemata readers have in their mind, the more information readers may acquire from the text, and the more effective readers they may become. FORMAL SCHEMATA AND READING COMPREHENSION  Carrel (1984) made an experiment to investigate whether we can facilitate ESL/EFL reading comprehension by teaching text structure based on schematic knowledge.  The result of the experiment proved that explicit teaching of the text structure can improve students’ reading comprehension.  Different reading materials bear different characteristics and pose the correspondent reading requests for readers.  A suitable employment of formal schemata plays a significant role in reading. CONTENT SCHEMATA AND READING COMPREHENSION  Content schemata refer to the knowledge relative to the content domain of reading materials, which is the key to the understanding of a text.  As a language is not only consisted of vocabulary, grammar and sentence structures, it is also the carrier of different levels of culture.  Studies proved that content schemata affect comprehension and remembering more than formal schemata do for text organization.  Readers remembered the most when both the content and rhetorical forms were familiar to them while unfamiliar content may cause more difficulties in