Intro To Psych PDF

 Early psychology Philosophical background: Rene Descartes -Cartesi...

 Early psychology Philosophical background: Rene Descartes -Cartesian Dualism= separation of mind and body -Malevolent demon= someone whose controlling input to your senses -Brain in the vat= in reality we are a brain connected to a computer, making us think we are existing when we aren’t Wilhelm Wundt: -structuralism and introspection -opened first experimental lab in 1879 William James: Psychodynamic: -functionalism -Freud and Jung -wrote principles of psychology (first official textbook) -unconscious motivating forces that guide behaviour and -influenced by Darwin and organisms function produce our personality -personality consists of Id, Ego and Superego -psychosexual stages of childhood Perspectives in psychology s behaviourism: -scientific study of behaviour -Pavlov, Watson and Skinner Science of Psychology -Pavolvs dogs= classical conditioning Biological: -Skinner= operant conditioning -behaviour is traced back to physical causes -the brain and nervous system influences behaviour -cognitive neuroscience= how brain structures influence behaviour -Broca research into areas of the brain (Broca found area controlling production of speech- Broca’s area) Humanistic: -Wernicke found area associated with understanding speech -Roger’s and Maslow (Wernickes area) -Emphasis moves away from reduction of human being to an organism that responds to stimuli Evolutionary approach: -people have needs -our behaviour is determined by our genes and our -free will existence depends on reproduction of our genes -rogers client centred therapy focuses on the self and unconditional -3 things needed for evolution: self replicating unit positive regard (gene), variability in its replication (mutation) and -Maslow hierarchy of needs emphasises peoples needs and levels of pressure to select on the variability importance to reach full potential -Darwin, Dawkins and Wilson -Dawkins suggests survival of the gene not the survival of the species -Meme- an idea unit that is very fit (likely to Cognitive: reproduce) e..g ideas of religion Memory research- Ebbinghaus -Wilson- sociobiology- sexual selection= Scientific study of mental reproductive strategies based on sex processes Cognitive revolution Stages of conversion in sensation: Touch- the tactile sense 3. Pain 1. Accessory structures modify physical stimulus (e.g. lens of the eye, outer ear 3 different receptors for touch: -pain pathways with neurotransmitters: substance P modifies sound) 1. Temperature produces pain: endorphins decrease it 2. transduction= physical energy is picked up by receptors and converted into -its relative. At 32 degrees Celsius neither warmth or cold is -stimulating parts of the brain with electrodes can neural energy (e.g. cells in retina respond to light energy) felt. release endorphins to reduce pain -receptors respond best to changes in energy levels, otherwise adaptation Above the temperature, we feel warmth, below that -endorphins are released in anticipation of pain as occurs temperature, we feel cold well (classical conditioning) 3. Sensory neves send transduced neural energy to the brain -however if the skin temperature is raised or lowered, what is -acupuncture may work by stimulating endorphins -1st the thalamus 9relay station) then onto different parts of the cortex (visual sensed as hot or cold changes and or auditory cortex) 2. Pressure Taste 4. Sensation is produced once message reaches brain -it’s relative. Changes in pressure are felt: large adaptation- -Main sensors are taste buds don’t feel our wristwatch pressing on our skin except for only -taste sensation may operate similarly to colour sensation Measuring the senses and thresholds- psychometrics a short while (trichromatic theory) -Noise= random excitation or inhibition of neurons that either increases or decreases the sensed intensity of a physical stimulus Sensation= Beginning stages -different. Ratios of output from a few different types of Perception= Latter, interpretation stages (prior receptor cells can produce e a multitude of sensations implications of noise: knowledge, memory, emotional state) Colour: 3 different types of receptors -repeated presentations of the same physical level of intensity do not always Taste: 4 different types of receptors produce the same internal sensation -other factors such as olfaction, mood and texture add -if a physical signal is doubled, that does not always produce a doubling of Sensation to flavour of food sensation (may not appear twice as loud) -absolute threshold (lowest level of intensity at which a person detects stimulus)- defined as the physical intensity at which a person can detect the Hearing pitch: stimulus 50% of the time -place theory: different places on the basilar membrane vibrate more depending on pitch Webers law: -low frequencies at apex- high frequencies at the -Difference threshold- smallest amount of change in a stimulus before a change is base (near oval window) detected -research support from studies that artificially -Weber fraction- difference threshold increases in proportion to the standard: stimulate particular areas of the membrane, produces a fraction known as Webers law produces sensations of hearing different pitches =Change in intensity of stimulus/intensity of standard =C -also elderly who cannot hear certain high pitches Hearing: show evidence that there is damage to the base -sound waves of the basilar membrane -frequency of the waves gives the pitch= Hertz (Hz) Problems with place theory: Humans hear from about 20 Hz to about 20000Hz, dogs hear up to 80000Hz -below 1000Hz, no specific place on the membrane vibrates more than any Frequency and Volley theory: -amplitude of waves gives the volume= decibels (dB) other. however, we can distinguish between tones that are below that -there is alternation in the firing of hair cells -complexity (timbre)- nature of the sound (e..g instruments) frequency (volleying) Frequency theory: -group of hair cells fire in alternation, sending a -basilar membrane is like a guitar string. The higher the frequency of the sound, the faster it higher frequency of signal to the brain vibrates -it is the rate that the hair cells are stimulated that matters, not which hair cells (place theory) Problem for frequency and volley Problem for frequency theory: theory: -above 1000Hz, cell cannot fire any faster (refractory period). however, we can distinguish -very high frequencies would need very between tones that are above that frequency complex teamwork Vision: Smell- the olfactory sense Physical energy= light Pheromones: 1. Light is wavelike, measured in nanometers (1nm= 1 -chemicals secreted in the body which produce a physiological response billionth of a meter) -dogs, monkeys, rodents all respond to pheromones 2. Electromagnetic spectrum- differing wavelengths -women are asked to dance more when they are ovulating X-rays 10^-1 nm Some evidence that women sync up menstrual cycles due to Ultraviolet 10^1 nm pheromones Infrared 10^3 nm. ->Visible light Radar 10^5 nm. -> visible light Olfaction: high adaptation -over time, ability to detect odour drops to about 30% Sensation= Beginning stages 8% of people lose sense of smell: lose interest in sex Perception= Latter, interpretation stages (prior Olfaction tightly linked to taste (inability to smell during a bad cold reduces knowledge, memory, emotional state) taste sensation) The eye: From photoreceptor to sensation (seeing) s in the retina are photoreceptors -information from rods and cones is conveyed to ganglion cells (via bipolar -photoreceptors contain substance called photopigment cells) which send info up the optic nerve to the brain -when light is projected onto photoreceptors, the photopigment Sensation (Ganglion cells are particularly important for feature analysis) contained within it breaks down, which initiates transmission of -the place where optic nerve leaves the eye in known as the optic disk (blind information to the brain spot) -when photopigment breaks down in response to light, it is said to have Cones sensitive to: -all information from the eye meets at the optic chiasm which re-routes it to been bleached (it becomes brighter in colour) Short wavelengths produce blue the thalamus, and then to the visual cortex (in the occipital lobe) medium wavelengths produce green -information from left visual field goes to the right cerebral hemisphere: The two types of photoreceptors: information from right visual field to the left cerebral hemisphere 1. Rods- vision in dim light: no colour information, few are located on the Long wavelengths produce red fovea Support for trichromatic theory: -contain the photopigment rhodopsin (bleached mostly with light near middle of Colour mixtures will cause more than one type of iodopsin Dichromatic colour blindness- some people have only two spectrum) to be bleached types of iodopsin: either blue and green or blue and red 2. Cones- vision in bright light, colour information and fine details -need both red and green iodopsin to distinguish red from -Contain the photopigment iodopsin Combinations of iodopsin breakdown produce sensation of green in the world: dichromats can’t make this distinctive 3 different types of iodopsin, hence different types of cone, each sensitive other colours on the spectrum Monochromatic colour blindness- only have one type of to different wavelengths of light iodopsin. they see only shades of monochrome- need -allows for colour vision more than one type of iodopsin to see colour variation Colour vision; the Trichromatic (young/ Helmholtz) Problems for trichromatic theory: theory: -dichromats can see yellow- yellow is supposedly the -colours of the spectrum: colours that can be made of either a unique sensation when both red and green iodopsin is bleached. wavelength of light or a combination of unique wavelengths =How can both be bleached if dichromats don’t have either -primary colours- colours that can produce any colour on the spectrum green or red iodopsin when combined in the right amounts -other theories have been proposed to work in conjunction -pigments: red, blue and yellow (subtractive mixtures) with trichromatic theory -light: red, blue and green (additive mixture) -visual receptor types are organised in opponent pairs= blue/ yellow, red/green, black/white Sensation- very biological Visual perception Monocular depth cues (only one eye Perception- integration of stimulation from the senses, involves top down necessary) processes -depth perception= ability to judge distance 1- motion parallax- objects closer to Top down processes- involvement of memory, expectations, mood, current =absolute distance (distance b/t observer and object) observer appear to move faster (e.g. driving context and beliefs on the interpretation of information from the senses =relative distance (distance b/t objects) in car) -. relative size- size of an object relative to Examples of inference in perception: binocular depth cues (needs 2 eyes) others around it -perceptual constancy- despite variation in the data received by the brain from -convergence= eyes move together as objects get ->must have prior knowledge of size of the senses, our perception of the world remains mostly constant closer, muscle tension is a cue to how far away object is object -size- unaffected by distance -binocular (retinal) disparity= slightly different views of -shape- unaffected by movement e.g. door opening world presented to each eye are interpreted by brain to moon illusion- moon on horizon seems -colour- unaffected by day or night give depth information larger- we assume that objects on horizon -brightness- white walls are still bright even at night time =the further an objects is from the observer, the less are farther away, automatically scale size disparity between the images projected on the retinas according to distance brightness contrast- our perception of brightness is not of the two eyes solely dependent on the absolute amount of light reflected Example of depth illusion= 3d glasses from surface of an object, but also on the amount of light s reflected from other objects in the area Examples of top down processes: Perception 1. Phonemic restoration= auditory signal presented and notice if some parts of sentence was removed- the gaps will be filled by what we expect to hear Linear perspective- texture gradient- 2. Illusory contours= even when edges not present, we see them apparent convergence of objects at a parallel lines on the horizon. distance are denser, 3. Degraded figures= missing pieces in an image and can still see Converge at a vanishing less detailed, and what it is point closer together perceptual set- readiness to interpret stimuli in a certain way depending on expectations and experience Aerial perspective- distant -Occlusion- objects objects are fuzzy due to that occlude others Perceptual ambiguous figures- figures that can be moisture and particles in perceived in two different ways are perceived to the air be closer -same raw material from senses but different interpretations of it E..g letters Visual illusions: ponzo illusion= linear -the Ames room -muller-lyer illusion= perspective suggests that illusion= all depth depth cues suggest the object is further away: cues suggest these long line is closer, the perceptual system makes people are the same principle of size constancy same size retinal image distance from the causes us to see same size seem larger (size observer when they retina image as larger constancy) are not (similar to moon illusion) Motion perception: Gestalt principles and problem solving: -type problems can be organised into a particular gestalt, but suddenly a new -when motion isn't perceived: interpretation is obtained When we examine a stable object, we move our eyes but see a stable image -often people are fixated on one organisation of the problem Why is image stable if retinal images are changing -solving the problem involves a sudden flip to a new gestalt that is often Perceptual system compensates for voluntary eye movements accompanied by a feeling of enlightenment If we move our eyes with something other than eye muscles, perceptual system can’t compensate- sees objects as moving Nature/ nurture and perceptual organisation: -evidence for nature= at 6 months infants will not beckon mother is there is a -when motion is perceived: visual cliff and newborns show preference for shapes that resemble human face If we do sense motion, necessary to distinguish the object moving and observer moving We do so by noticing how the background changes relative to object Moving object occludes objects as it moves: if we are moving, objects appear more Evidence for nurture stable relative to background (learning): perceptual adaption -ears tell us about motion- the discrepancy in the intensity of sound to each ear- gives -feature detectors cells- can and differentiation= information about movement be trained to be sensitive trained musicians can to particular orientations hear subtleties in s Illusions of motion: harmony that others -apparent motion= perceptual systems fills in the gaps on successive, would miss motionless images Perception Gestalt- top down processes= the whole is greater than the sum of the parts =believed we couldn’t understand perception -phi-phenomenon= apparent motion produced by a succession of by trying to look at the whole built up from the flashing lights parts- try to examine system at a higher level induced motion= if objects near a stationary one are moving, the =filling in the gaps- perceptual; system wants to stationary one appears also to be moving make a complete, holistic interpretations so if grouping principles= E.g. clouds in front of moon, or objects under water in stream pieces are missing, it fills them in using memory a. Proximity of notes in a song allow you to hear successive Similar idea- train feels like it’s moving when its actually the train next =perceptually ambiguous figures- gestalt can notes of a melody to you flip on you such that a brand new interpretation b. Good continuation allows you to pick out the melody in the motion after effect= after moving forward for some time and is obtained presence of other background harmonies then stop, scenery outside seems like it is moving backward slightly c. Closure allows you to fill in the gaps of a radio announcer How are gestalts formed: who is competing with a lot of static that cuts out several of his -figure/ground distinction= the distinction between words The perception of form: that which stands out (figure) and that which is background (ground) Contorversey about whether we perceive the object as a whole first -grouping principles= proximity, good continuation and then analyse the parts or vice versa and closure -feature analysis- bottom up processes= different feature detectors Gestalt principles can be applied to sound perception: that are activated when a stimulus is presented (ganglion cells) -figure-ground= in a lecture, the speaker is figure = activated feature detector cells in turn activate different stored and the sound of audience in ground representations of letters in memory =the memory representation that is most activated wins  Stages of memory: Semantic memory Flashbulb memories: 1. Acquisition (encoding): the process of attending to a stimulus and -not tied to a particular context -occur for very surprising, vivid experiences e.g. encoding into memory e.g. saving a file onto a flash drive -memories of knowledge disasters or assassinations 2. Retention: the preservation of a stored material over an internal e..g if the -creates a semantic network (associations with words, e.g. dog and fur) -very recoverable memories with many details file stays on the drive, it is retained -if a cluster of these related concepts are formed, it is a schema -possible to remember where you were told, who 3. Retrieval: process of getting information back for use e.g. opening a file was around, how you found out onto the computer Semantic priming= if a word is processed immediately preceding a -whenever someone asks you to recount details, its second related word, the processing of the second word is enhanced like replaying the tape of an event Multi-store model of memory: -consists of sensory memory, short term and long term memory Passive (trace-driven) vs active (schema-driven) memory retrieval: Schema driven: -different stores Schema= a set of expectations about the way the world trace driven= works that affects the information we attend to and Sensory memory- initial presentation of the stimulus, forms a -a trace what is left behind in memory after an event has occurred remember sensory memory of it -can be retrieved at any time after the event has occurred -memory is not a literal re-experiencing -sight= iconic memory (very short, few hundred milliseconds) -trace can deteriorate with time but doesn’t become altered by schemas in any way-depending on current expectations, interpretation and biases, -sound= echoic memory (about 4 seconds, important for -tape recorder analogy- parts of tape can drop out or become distorted, but memory will vary understanding speech) changes are random -memory is literal re-experiencing of the past when trace is retrieved Bartlett war of ghosts Short term memory- -story about warriors fighting ghosts s -consciousness= items we are currently aware of =story became simplified and more coherent- lost details that weren’t crucial -allows us to experience the world as an integrated fashion (integrated into =made it become a story of fight to the death, removing the supernatural part current experience) Memory Eyewitness memory: -limited capacity= between 5 and 9 items Loftus and Palmer -miller found that on average remembers 7 digits (found phone numbers are 7 Levels of processing= memory is determined by how -asked pts how fast car was going when it….(either smashed, collided, as easy to remember) information is processed, not by what box its in bumped, hit, contacted) Items can be lost in short term memory: -shallow processing- processing of superficial features: =reports of the speed were altered e..g smashed 40.8mph, contacted 1. Decay: with time memory rusts physical properties, not good memory 31.8mph 2. Displaced: new items can enter short term memory and knock others out -deep processing= processing for meaning, results in -then asked how fast they were going when they hit, or smashed, and asked (can avoid this by rehearsing information before it decays) better memory if seen any broken glass =ppts that heard smashed reported seeing broken glass more than those Two types of rehearsal: Episodic memory: who heard hit -maintenance rehearsal= keeps items active in STM (repeating until you -context specific memory Misinformation on social media: need to use it) -memory of events and episodes in your life -Fake news is a type of misinformation on social media -elaboration rehearsal= can transfer an item from STM to LTM (repeating -obeys encoding specificity -misinformation= information that is incorrect or misleading but not over a long period of time) intentionally Primacy- recency effect Encoding specificity- retrieval is based on retrieval cues -disinformation= incorrect or misleading information that is deliberately shared -remembered start of list as it was rehearsed and put into LTM -remembered end of list as still in STM Baddeley= land and water divers studies illusory truth effect: -would remember words learnt on land if recalling them on land Increasing the capacity of the STM= Chunking -repeated information tends to be believed more than novel informaiton -would remember words learnt under water if recalling them -if items can be grouped together such that they form -simply repeating information makes people more likely to believe it is true underwater larger wholes, capacity of STM can be increased -this happens regardless of the veracity of the information State dependent learning= internal state e.g. mood or drugs- matching -need to develop expertise= chess masters could -potentially dangerous because misinformation that is inflammatory and the state that occured during learning will help recall remember more as chunked the pieces into groups on controversial tends to be repeated and shared the board Craik and Tulving- studied nouns, but process them during study in -if inflammatory or controversial information is more likely to be spread, then Long term memory different ways (case of letters, thyme of word or meaning) users are more likely to encounter is frequently and come to believe it -information passed from STM to LTM through -remembered more in the sentence condition, they remembered more than Vellani elaborative rehearsal the case condition and the rhyme condition -people more likely to believe and share repeated info, true and false Social psychology= scientific study of how the thoughts, feelings and behaviour of Self knowledge individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others possible ways to acquire self-knowledge: -typically includes the influence by the self Harris and Rosenthal= children randomly chosen as ‘bright’, they did better in the end of year self fulfilling prophecies= tests as the teacher unintentionally changed Social cognition= structures and processes involved in perceiving, interpreting and -others expectations can cause us to know acting on social information behaviour towards them ourselves and behave in a way that is confirming -focuses on processes involved in peoples choices of which social events to pay of those expectations attention to, how to interpret these events, and how to store these experiences in memory Social comparison theory= Self perception theory= -emphasis on personal subjective experience of the environment Festinger Ben (1972) -people are driven to gain accurate self evaluations (opinions, abilities, Impression formation: -we learn about ourselves by observing how we perceptions). -assigning characteristics to other people behave -self evaluation is often achieved by comparing ourselves to others E.g. you see that you go for walks a lot, must be a Asch configural model E..g comparing test scores, getting second highest feels good even if the person who enjoys walking -people tend to not simply add up impressions but rather make holistic highest score was really low judgements based on specific information -central traits= characteristics that are disproportionally influential in impression s formation -useful for summarising large amounts of information about a person Stereotype suppression: -would give people lists of traits about people. 2 sets of words. Social cognition Macrae -even though only one word differed, the central trait made a big difference -stereotype-specific study about the impression people formed -ppts asked to not think about white bears for 5 mins, -given rating scale, given bipolar pairs Schemas: then asked to think about them for 5 minutes =rated the warm person more favourable rather than the cold person -a set of expectations about the way the world works -asked to ring bell every time a thought of bears occurred =changed word to polite/ blunt- rated favourable if they were polite but not by that affects the information we attend to and remember -either had to suppress then express, or express then much -a mental framework that organises and synthesis suppress =warm vs cold is a central trait as made more difference in ratings than the information =when instructed to ‘express’ thoughts of white bears blunt- polite condition -schemas contain information about attributes and the after suppression, the number of white bear thoughts relationship between attributes remains high Biases in impression formation: -schemas influence our social perceptions by guiding our =when instructed to ‘express’ thoughts of white bears expectations e.g. what the office of a professor looks like before suppression, the number of white bear thoughts primacy effect= -types of schemas= person, role, self, event, content free diminished over time earlier information has stronger influence than later information =when asked to ‘suppress’ thoughts of white bears, E.g. showing positive words at the start of the list influences the impression intruding thoughts decrease over time more positively, whereas showing negative traits first influences impressions negatively Group schemas: rebound effect: suppressing stereotypical Prejudice: emotional aspect thoughts leads to stronger link between negativity bias= -a generalise attitude towards members of a social group group and stereotype, thus those thoughts negative information has stronger influence than positive information- -e. g. I hate people from this country more easily come to mind especially in the domains of sociability and morality -people expect others to be positive, negative behaviour is seen as Stereotype: cognitive aspect violating these expectancies -a generalised belief about the members of the group E.g. Asian Americans and intelligence Halo effect= Discrimination: behavioural aspect The assumption that someone with known positive (or negative) qualities -behaviours directed toward others because of group membership also possesses additional undisclosed positive (or negative) qualities -e.g. giving someone something negative because of their race or sex  Attributional biases: Cognitive shortcuts Actor observer effect= When we look for causes of behaviour it matters if we are the actor or the observer -due to limited cognitive resources, shortcuts allow for less resources to be used to make a judgement -as an actor= we perceive our behaviour as influenced by situation -specifically: heuristics= mental shortcuts used to make judgements; past experience is used for quick decision -as an observer= we perceive behaviour of others as due to personal dispositions +speedy -not always accurate Fundamental attribution error= -the fundamental attribution error is the tendency to consider behaviour to Types of heuristics: reflect underlying and immutable (often innate) properties of people -known as correspondence bias representativeness heuristic= Jones and Harris= -classifying something as belonging to a certain category to the extent that it is similar to the typical case -ppts read essays arguing pro-Castro or anti-Castro issues (IV) -comparison of a situation/ individual with prototypes we hold -told that the write was either given a choice which side of debate they’re on, or told they had no choice (IV) problem= ignore additional information such as base-rate -measured- how pro-Castro is the essay writer (DV) =those who were told they had no choice of the side of debate still thought it was Conjunction fallacy- two sets, may have two things in common, this pro-Castro= believed their attributes and views were like this despite it not being part is the conjunction s true -probability of conjunction of two sets can never be greater than the probability of either set on its own False consensus= Social cognition -the tendency for people to believe that their own behaviour is widely Availability heuristic- shared and that their own views are consensual Estimate likelihood of event by ease with which instances of that event -we surround ourselves with similar others e.g. if we smoke, we have come to mind friends that do -easily comes to mind-> higher probability assumed -we see ourselves as an anchor (our attitudes are a basis on how we think E.g. which is more dangerous, driving in a car of flying in a plane the world thinks) Anchoring and adjustment heuristic- Self serving bias= Estimates are made by starting with an initial value (anchor) that is -tendency to attribute ones success to dispositional characteristics and adjusted to reach an answer ones failures to situational factors (factors beyond ones control) E.g. estimating on how long to study for a difficult made by thinking of -e.g. did well on test -> i am intelligent, did bad on test -> the test was hours studied on a normal course and adding some more unfair questions Kelleys covariation theory: Social inference -attributions are made using three principles: -Attributions- what helps us navigate social situations -consensus -Attribution theory= an explanation of how people develop a causal understanding of -consistency human behaviour -distinctiveness Heider = Different types of causes for behaviour Covariation theory: -situational factors (external causes)= stimuli in the environment -attributions can be of four types: -dispositional factors (internal causes)= individual personality characteristics The person (internal of dispositional) The stimulus (external or situational) The circumstance Some combination of these factors  Attitudes Persuasion Nature of attitudes: -two routes to a persuasive message Attempt - conveys the message Definition- relatively enduring sets of beliefs, feelings and intentions towards an object, person, Audience factor- either high motivation to event or symbol think about the message or low motivation Processing approach- either central Components: processing (focused on the quality of the -affective component= feelings of like/dislike message) or peripheral processing (surface -cognitive component= beliefs held about the object feature of the message e.g. communicators -behavioural component= intention of behaviour in accordance to attitude attractiveness) Attitude formation Persuasion outcome- either lasting change 1. Classical conditioning or temporary change Unconditioned stimulus-> unconditioned response Repeated pairing of unconditioned stimulus with the conditioned stimulus Conditioned stimulus -> conditioned response E.g. family at Christmas -> relaxation s Family at Christmas + presents -> relaxation Presents-> relaxation Attitudes 2. Mere exposure Festinger and Carlsmith= When a stimulus starts as neutral (or positive) -ppts induced to do a boring task -then, the more often you see it the more you like it -asked ppts to tell another ppts that the task was -mere exposure effect might even by larger when it is subliminal fun (when it wasn’t) -also applies to advertising Theories of behaviour affecting attitudes: -rewarded for lying -after the lying and reward, ppts asked to rate how Bernstein and D-Agostino they liked the task =those shown photographs every 5 milliseconds and shown welsh figs Bem- self perception theory =ppts changed attitude about it, found it enjoyable every 5 milliseconds rated their liking of it higher than those who were -theory states that people infer their own attitudes but only if they had insufficient justification for telling shown it every 500 milliseconds from their behaviour a lie (being given $1) - lying for $1 makes them feel -this means that people would observe themselves Attitude behaviour consistency less dissonance as they feel bad for lying for only $1 similar to how they observe others and look for so rate the experiment better Factors that influence the likelihood that peoples attitudes will be consistent attributional explanations for behaviour with their behaviour: -knowledge= If you know a lot and it is firsthand knowledge, then consistency is higher -Personal relevance= More personally relevant means more consistency and personal investment -Attitude accessibility= Festinger- cognitive dissonance More accessible means more consistency as easier to bring to mind and act -dissonance= unpleasant state; tension that arises when on we perceive a discrepancy between attitudes and -behavioural intentions= behaviours, behaviour and self image, one attitude and Behaviour that is intended/planned means more consistency due to the another specific aims to act like this -cognitive dissonance theory= dissonance is an adverse state that people are motivated to reduce What are emotions: Biology of emotions Orbitofrontal cortex: -from Latin to move or to stir up Amygdala: -location= top of frontal lobes -displays of feelings -location= temporal lobe, in front of hippocampus -receives information from sensory systems and -relatively brief -part of the limbic system regions of frontal lobes that control behaviour -important role in expression of conditional -communicates with limbic system Six basic emotions: emotional responses -disgust Damage to amygdala: -focal point between sensory systems and -fear -damage to amygdala has been associated with lack of fear responses when systems for behavioural, autonomic and hormonal -joy confronted with typically fear-evoking stimuli components of conditioned emotional responses -surprise -sadness -anger LeDoux- identified two routes by which conditioning of fear can occur -link between thalamus and amygdala: carries the emotional content of the conditioning Emotions and evolution: -link between the thalamus and visual/auditory cortex and amygdala: carries sensory Darwin content of the conditioning -human expressions of emotions are evolved (not learned) -universally expressed and recognised Damage to the orbitofrontal cortex: s -if expressions of emotions are biologically determined then Case study of Phinneas Gage they are the same regardless of culture/region -damage of OFC impaired inhibitions and self concern Emotions -difficulties applying knowledge In real life Families of emotion -connections between somatic states and an appreciation of them are missing Effects of Botox: -problems recognising facial and vocal emotional expression basic emotions (evolved, universally expressed and -paralyses the frown muscle, defeating understood) forehead wrinkles but frown muscle Facial feedback hypothesis -sadness, joy, surprise, fear, anger, disgust are integral to anger expressions Strack= -reading of sentences slowed when -ppts instructed to hold pen in mouth either in a sucking position or in teeth condition Self conscious emotions expression of evoked emotions would -ppts then read and rated cartoons -shame, pride have required paralysed muscles =pen held with teeth (facial muscles forming into a smile) pet to cartoons being rated as more funny (sadness or anger) compared to when pen held between lips (preventing a smile) Moral emotions -supports the idea that out facial expressions can influence our feelings Theories of emotions -contempt, empathy Schachter and Singer- two factor theory of emotion James-Lange theory Cannon-Bard Theory -emotions are determined by both the perception of physiology Zelesnki and Larson= -do we first feel sad and then we (Countering James-Lange) and cognitive assessment of the situation -Freud claimed Human kinds common cry or do we cry and then know we -emotional and physiological responses are -ppts received adrenaline shot (giving them physiological changes) mental state is unhappiness are sad separate, but both occur in direct response to -how do they interpret this Method- Stimulus-> perception/interpretation the stimulus -one group told the injection would have no effect 3 short emotion questionnaires a day for -> pattern of autonomic arousal -> -same physiological reactions (racing -other group told it would make them tremble and their heart race one month emotion experienced heartbreak, increased respiration) for different -other group told it would produce symptoms not associated with Results- -behaviours come first and then emotions (could be fear, excitement or anger) adrenaline -ppts were mostly happy or relaxed on emotions become involved Stimulus -> physiological response -ppts put in a room with confederate who was either playing average throughout the day Stimulus -> emotional response happily or angrily ripping up paper -least likely to be sad or guilty or afraid Dutton and Aron- misattribution of arousal paradigm =group 1 and 3 felt happy around happy confederate or angry -students almost 5x more often happy -ppts were required to either cross a wobbly bridge or a stable solid bridge around angry confederate and they misattributed arousal symptoms compared to sad -afterwards they rated their physical attraction towards a target person down to emotion =those crossing the wobbly bridge were physiologically more aroused and misattributed =group 2 found their emotion was unaffected by confederate and that arousal to physical attraction correctly attributed arousal symptoms to the injection  Conformity: Social influence =the change in behaviour to match the response or actions of others 2 types of key social influence: -compliance= change of behaviour in response to direct request Why do people conform: -obedience= change of behaviour in response to directive from authority -informational influence= conformity because we believe that others understand the situation better than we do figure -normative influence= conformity in order to be liked and accepted by others, to gain social approval -conformity= change in behaviour to match response or actions of others Sherif= investigated whether it was possible to observe the creation of social norms in the lab Compliance -ppts asked to estimate how far a pinpoint of light moved on the wall in a dark room (autokinetic effect= light isn’t moving, but Principles of compliance: it looks like it is) -reciprocity -did it alone first- answers varied a lot -consistency -then did it again with confederates= hear confederates give a smaller answer, so ppts answers became smaller -liking -repeated this each day Asch= line study -authority -normative conformist -there’s 3 lines and one standard line Reciprocity: -had to say which of the 3 lines matched the standard line -norm of reciprocity= the rule that obligates use to repay others for what -obvious task s we have received from them -confederates would give wrong answer -door in the face technique= start with an unreasonably large request, Interpersonal and -the ppts would give their answer wait for the other party to say on, then lower your request group processes =75% conformed at least once =people feel obliged to reciprocate the concession by the requester =33% conformity on average Caldini= Commitment variations: -large request- recruit uni study to work voluntarily and no -norm of commitment- once we make a commitment, we -response given in cubicles privately (23% pay, two hours a week for 2 years feel pressure to follow through conformity) -concession- only two hours for one day -low balling technique- have people commit to a course of -erroneous majority is not unanimous (5.5%) =50% said yes for door in the face action then increase the request Liking: Consistency: Caldini= -people comply more with request made by individual they like -norm of consistency- rule that obliges us to be -commitment- would you take part in experiment Factors that influence liking: consistent in our behaviour -request- starts at 7am -attractiveness -foot in the door technique- start with a small request, =56% complied for low balling -similarity wait for other party to say yes and then ask for large =31% complied to control -familiarity request =people feel obliged to keep consistent and are more Authority likely to comply to a larger request -people comply more with requests made by individuals in a position of authority -people are likely to obey orders from individuals in authority Freedman and Fraser= -small request to house owners- small sign -large request gigantic sign Milgram= Hofling= =76% complied for small and then large (same sign) -obedience study -orders given on a phone, nurses asked to administer a non approved =47.6% complied for small then large (different) -obeyed to giving lethal electric shock drug in a large dosage =16.7% complied to large only -no one believed anyone would go to 450 volts, but they did -rules said the instructions can’t be over the phone =21/22 nurses who took the calls were ready to give this injection Performance: Social facilitation= improved task Can prejudice be reduced: -social facilitation/ social inhibition performance in the presence of others -contact hypothesis= contact with people of outgroup (communication, -do people perform better when alone or in groups Social inhibition= decreased task interaction) should reduce prejudice Zajonc= performance in the presence of others ->however, anxiety, self fulfilling prophecy, power differential, length of contact, cockroaches trained to do a maze task Dominant response= the reaction can all work against this hypothesis -When doing a simple maze task- they did it alone in 41 seconds or with elicited most quickly and easily by a an audience in 33 seconds given stimulus When contact hypothesis does work: -when doing a complex maze task- when alone they did it 110 seconds -decategorisation= seeing the other as an individual rather than as a member of and when they had an audience they did it in 130 seconds the outgroup Social loafing -recategorisation= instead of ingroup vs outgroup, the focus is on common =a type of motivation loss that occurs when group membership in a superordinate group latane, Williams and Harkins= members work is unidentifiable and they work less -blindfolded ppts and had them put on headphones than they would work individually -played clapping or cheering Bystander intervention: -ppts asked to clap or cheer too =bystander effect is the tendency for a bystander to be less likely to -ppts thought they were making noise alone or with other people help in an emergency if there are other onlookers present =1/3 less noise when they thought others were also making noise Prejudice =emotional component- a shared attitude or feeling towards a social outgroup and their members based on group membership Prejudice is not always obvious= linguistic intergroup bias s Interpersonal and group processes E.g. Kitty Genovese- saw a murder and didn’t call the police, assuming someone else would do so =tendency to use concrete, specific language describing positive outgroup Latane and Darley: characteristics and negative ingroup characteristics -ppts were told they would discuss problems face by students =tendency to use more general and abstract terms related to enduring traits -ppts believed they were going to have discussion either alone, with one or with four others in regards to negative outgroup characteristics and positive ingroup -shortly after, one on the intercom starting choking and had an epileptic seizure characteristics =when alone, it took them 50 seconds to help =when with one other, took them 90 seconds to help Linguistic intergroup bias =when with four others, took them 170 seconds to help Maas study results anything in group, is seen as more desirable while outgroup is seen as undesirable Principles that can prevent helping: Cognitive processes in prejudice: pluralistic ignorance= a majority of group members privately reject a belief, but incorrectly assume that Illusory correlations- perception of a relation between two distinctive elements that does not exist or is most others accept it and therefore go alone with it exaggerated -e.g. not asking a question in class because they believe they are the only one who -caused by a tendency to focus on confirmatory evidence doesn’t understand -confirmatory bias -e.g. not helping a person as everyone else understands what is going on, that’s why -conspiracy theories- attend to evidence in favour of conspiracy- ignore anything that is inconsistent with it no one is doing anything E.g. belief that people from New York are rude Diffusion of responsibility: Illusion of out-group homogeneity- tendency to perceive members of the outgroup as more similar to each -tendency for each group members to dilute personal responsibility for acting by other than members of the ingroup spreading it among all other group members E.g. women might see men as all the same and vice versa -e.g. bystanders to an emergency may assume someone else will call the police Classical theory- Piaget -observed his own children Socio cultural theory of cognitive development -focused on cognitive structures that children acquire by interacting with Vygotsky= environment -sociocultural environment vital for cognitive development -Schemata= mental representations that define a particular category/ -language drives cognitive development by internalising social interactions behaviour -children learn from more competent others presenting alternative perspectives -Concepts= rules that describe properties of environmental events -zone of proximal development= range of task that a child is unable to master alone but can and their relations to other concepts perform with the assistance of peers -scaffolding= appropriate assistance given by teacher to assist the learner to accomplish a task- Processes to adapt to environment: requires examples on how to solve a problem while controlling the environment so that the Assimilation= new information is modified to fit into existing schema learner can gradually expand knowledge without excessive frustration Accommodation= new schemata produced or old schemata changed by new informations s Piaget's four stages of cognitive development -Up to age 2= Sensorimotor period -Age 2-7=pre operational period Developmental psychology -Age 7-11=concrete operational period -Age 11+= formal operational period Stage 3- Concrete operational period (7-11 years) Stage 1 = Sensorimotor (0-2 years) -Development of organised and rational thinking -objects permanence= learn that just because they can’t see -Logical analyses- but only applied to physical objects an object, doesn’t mean its gone -inductive reasoning- applies assumptions from few people to all -deferred imitation= forming mental representation of actions -abstract or hypothetical thinking is not yet developed that are recalled later -complex cause and effect relations (think they are sick due to being -rudimentary symbolic thinking= words to represent objects badly behaved) -search and investigate -classification of objects (assume the colours of animals make them different) -empathise with others -mastery of conservation problems Stage 2 = Pre-operational (2-7 years) -language ability develops rapidly Stage 4- formal operational period (11+) -counting numbers -adolescence -increased ability to think symbolically and logically -abstract reasoning- according to Piaget not everyone reaches -still have difficulties mastering conservation problems this stage -start to develop theory of mind- ability to imagine with others are -ability to hypothesis, test and re evaluate hypothesis thinking -begin thinking in a formal systematic way -still have egocentrism but start to lose it by the end -logical thinking -ability to work through abstract problems  Health psychology: stress Criticism of the general adaptation syndrome: Coping= Stress: -little consideration of psychological factors e.g. cognitive -pattern of physiological, cognitive, emotional and behavioural appraisal Cognitive reappraisal: response to real or imagined stimuli that are perceived as -assumed that all responses to stress are uniform (failed to -reappraisal means that when a stressor is re- preventing a goal or endangering or otherwise threatening well consider individual responses or specificity of challenges) evaluated as less threatening then stress should be being -stress is assessed as an outcome reduced -the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, E.g. understanding the exam is difficult but believing or stressors, that we view as challenging or threatening you are ready for it Cognitive appraisal: -our own reactions/ the way we interpret what is Progressive relaxation: Stressors: happening also affects stress -same principle as cognitive reappraisal- substitute -events of circumstances (or unrealistic thoughts) that cause stress -hardiness- some people view stressors as challenges and incompatible response for the stress reaction -not all stressors are undesirable meet them head on, resulting in less illness due to long -recognise body’s signals for stress -depending on circumstances next to anything could be a stressor term stress -signals as cue to begin relaxing -perceived control- situations that allow some form of -relaxing by focusing attention to muscle groups Basis of stress: control produce less signs of stress Walter cannon= fight or flight Other forms of coping: s -the physiological reactions to dangerous situations -in clinical settings= stress inoculation training as -preparation to fight or run away problem focused coping strategy When stressful situations are longer lasting- physiological reactions have Health psychology -disclosure interventions- write about stressful adverse effects experiences -hypnosis Source of stress: routine choices -conditioning interventions- neutral stimulus paired Approach-approach= choice between two desirable outcomes (e.g. with immune system facilitator short term reward vs long term reward) Approach-avoidance= one outcome is desirable, the other is not Avoidance-avoidance= both outcomes are undesirable Brown- compared social contact, receiving social support and giving social support -elderly couples asked how much instrumental support they gave and received (supporting Seyle through actions), how much emotional support they gave or received General adaptation syndrome -looked at control variables 1. Alarm: -then after 5 years, mortality was assessed -shock phase =receiving instrumental social support increased the odds of mortality -the body’s first reaction (fight or flight) =giving instrumental social support decreased the odds of mortality 2. Resistance: =more specifically, giving emotional support to a spouse decreased the odds of mortality -occurs with continued exposure -adaptation begins when the body starts to benefit from the increased access to the energy Coping with stress: reserves provided by the alarm reaction Lazarus and Folkman- different types of coping responses -problem focused coping= directed towards the source of the stress 3. Exhaustion: