1ST-SEM-Q1 Earth Science Notes PDF

EARTH SCI SUBSYSTEMS ❖ Atmospheric circulation - one of the most SYSTEM - A set of interconnected components important processes by which the heat that are interacting to form a unified whole. on the Earth's surface is redis...

EARTH SCI SUBSYSTEMS ❖ Atmospheric circulation - one of the most SYSTEM - A set of interconnected components important processes by which the heat that are interacting to form a unified whole. on the Earth's surface is redistributed ⮚ The Earth system is essentially a CLOSED Lithosphere SYSTEM (there is only an exchange of ❖ Lithosphere includes the crust and the heat or energy and no exchange of upper part of the mantle. matter.) Geosphere ⮚ The Earth receives energy from the sun ❖ Solid Earth extends from the surface to and returns some of this energy to space. the center Components or subsystems of the Earth system Layers of the Earth CRUST (continental & oceanic) ❖ the light and very thin outer skin of the Earth. ❖ The outermost layer where energy and mineral resources are derived. MANTLE (upper & lower) ❖ Less dense layer ❖ Made up of silicate rocks, mostly made of the elements silicon, oxygen, iron and magnesium. CORE (outer & inner) ❖ Denser layer ❖ the Earth’s magnetic field Major Themes: ❖ strengthens the idea that the Earth’s Scale outer core is molten/liquid. - processes in the Earth system act on ★ Outer core length scales of microns to thousands of ➔ about 2,200 kilometers kilometers, and on time scales of (1,367 miles) thick, is mostly milliseconds to millions of years. composed of liquid iron Energy and nickel. The Earth system is powered by: ➔ lies above Earth's solid - one external source: the Sun inner core and below its - two internal ones: radioactive decay & mantle. gravitational energy (heat still being lost ★ Inner core from planetary formation). ➔ a hot, dense ball of (mostly) Cycles iron - material in the Earth system is ➔ innermost geologic layer of continually recycled in numerous planet Earth. It is primarily overlapping cycles. a solid ball with a radius of about 1,220 km THE EARTH SUBSYSTEMS Biosphere Albedo effect ❖ includes all life forms on Earth ❖ Albedo is an expression of the ability of ❖ covers all ecosystems—from the soil to surfaces to reflect sunlight (heat from the rainforest, from mangroves to coral the sun). Light-coloured surfaces return reefs, and from the plankton-rich ocean a large part of the sun rays back to the surface to the deep sea. atmosphere (high albedo). Dark surfaces Hydrosphere absorb the rays from the sun (low ❖ dynamic mass of water that is albedo). continuously on the move Gaia hypothesis ❖ about 70% of the Earth is covered with ❖ James Lovelock and Lynn Margulis- liquid water (hydrosphere) and it is in the according to the Gaia Hypothesis, the form of ocean water. biosphere is a self-regulating system ❖ only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: in the that is capable of controlling its physical form of ice (2/3), and the remaining one-third is present in streams, lakes, and and chemical environment. groundwater. Atmosphere THE ORIGIN OF THE SYSTEMS APPROACH TO ❖ is the thin gaseous layer that envelops THE STUDY OF THE EARTH the lithosphere ★ Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander ❖ the present atmosphere is composed of: von Humboldt - one of the first scientists - 78% nitrogen (N) to push for a more integrated or holistic - 21% oxygen (O2) approach in the understanding of the - 0.9% argon universe, he considered the universe as - trace amount of other gasses. one interacting entity. 1 EARTH SCI ★ Vladimir Vernadsky (1863-1945) - the term Carbonates - minerals containing the "biosphere" was popularized by a Russian carbonate anion (CO3)2- combined with other - Ukrainian scientist who hypothesized elements. that life is a geological force that shapes the Earth. Native Elements - minerals that form as individual elements. ★ In 1983 - the NASA advisory council a) Metals and Inter-metals – minerals with established the Earth Systems Science high thermal and electric conductivity, Committee. The committee, chaired by typically with metallic luster, low hardness Moustafa Chahine, published a (gold, lead) groundbreaking report Earth System b) Semi-metals – minerals that are more Science: A Program For Global Change in fragile than metals and have lower 1988. For the first time, scientists were conductivity (arsenic, bismuth) able to demonstrate how the many c) Nonmetals – nonconductive (sulfur, systems interact. diamond) Halides - minerals containing halogen elements Concept map on how the subsystems are combined with one or more elements interconnected to each other SLK 4 (How Ore Minerals are Found, Mined, and Processed for Human Use) Mineral Occurrence - Concentration of a mineral that is of scientific or technical interest Mineral Deposit - Mineral occurrence of sufficient size and grade or concentration to enable extraction under the most favorable conditions Ore Deposit - Mineral deposit that has been tested and known to be economically profitable Structure of the earth to mine Aggregate - Rock or mineral material used as filler in cement, asphalt, plaster, etc.; generally used to describe nonmetallic deposits Ore - Naturally- occurring material from which a mineral or minerals of economic value can be extracted. MINERAL EXPLORATION 1. Pre-production Feasibility Study - The feasibility study determines and validates the accuracy of all data and information collected from the different stages. The purpose is for independent assessors to satisfy interested investors SLK 3 (Minerals) to raise funds and bring the project into Silicates - minerals containing 2 of the most production. abundant elements in the Earth’s crust, namely, 2. Project Design - This is the initial stage in silicon and oxygen (e.g. Silica tetrahedra which formulating a project. This involves review is made up of silicon and oxygen forms chains of all available data (geologic reports, and bonds with cations to form silicate mining history, maps, etc.), government minerals). requirements in acquiring the project, review of social, environmental, political, Oxides - minerals containing oxygen anion (O2-) and economic acceptability of the combined with one or more metal ions. project, and budget and organization proposals. Sulfates - minerals containing sulfur and 3. Field Exploration - This stage involves oxygen anion (SO4)- combined with other ions. physical activities in the selected project area. Sulfides - minerals containing sulfur anion (S2)- a) Detailed Exploration - This combined with one or more ions (e.g. copper, involves more detailed surface lead and zinc). and subsurface activities with the objective of finding and 2 EARTH SCI delineating targets or mineralized weathered rocks. The relatively zones. soft top layer of earth is stripped b) Prospect Evaluation - The main by either a dragline or industrial objective is to assess market shovel to uncover a deposit. profitability by 3. Placer Mining - Normally formed by 1) extensive resource, weathering via water and/or wind action, geotechnical and placers are unconsolidated deposits of engineering drilling, resources. Placer mining is generally 2) metallurgical testing done in riverbeds, sands or other 3) environmental and societal sedimentary environments and involves cost assessment. sifting valuable materials from c) Regional Reconnaissance - The sediments. main objective is to identify 4. In-situ mining - Also referred to as targets or interesting mineralized solution mining. It involves pumping zones covering a relatively large chemicals underground to dissolve area (regional). resource-containing ore and then pumping what is known as the "pregnant METHODS FOR FINDING ORE solution" back up to the surface, where it 1. Gravimetric - The darker ore body can be processed to recover minerals. causes a higher gravity reading due to This technique causes very little its higher density compared to the disturbance to the surface and does not surrounding produce large amounts of waste rock. 2. Self-potential - The orebody generates a current through the surrounding rocks. MILLING PROCESS This current can be detected at the 1. Heavy media separation - The crushed surface. rocks are submerged in liquid where the 3. Induced Polarization - By measuring the heavier/ denser minerals sink thus are voltage caused by this field with a second separated from the lighter minerals. pair of electrodes, a given distance away, 2. Magnetic separation - If the metal or the geophysicist can calculate the mineral is magnetic, the crushed ore is electrical property of the ground, which separated from waste materials using a is known as the resistivity. powerful magnet. 4. Exploratory Drilling - From a single drill 3. Flotation - The powdered ore is placed site core is drilled in several different into an agitated and frothy slurry where directions, to see whether minerals are some minerals and metals based on present. The drills bring up cores which physical and chemical properties may are cylinders of rock that can be either sink to the bottom or may stick to analyzed. the bubbles and rise to the top thus separating the minerals and metals from the waste. MINING METHODS 4. Cyanide heap leaching - This method 1. Underground Mining - involves digging used for low-grade gold ore where the down into the earth and creating tunnels crushed rock is placed on a “leach pile” and shafts that reach the deposits of where cyanide solution is sprayed or resources. deposits. Underground dipped on top of the pile. As the leach mining is expensive and dangerous. solution percolates down through the Hazards in underground mines include rocks, the gold is dissolved into the toxic gasses, lack of fresh air, total solution. darkness, and the potential for accidents such as explosions and mine collapses. Concept map 2. Surface Mining - involves removal of plant life, soil and potentially bedrock to be able to access resource deposits. It is normally used for fairly shallow, non-precious deposits. a) Open-pit mining - involves digging out rocks to form an open pit or borrow pit, from which resources are then extracted. typically worked until either the mineral deposit is depleted, or various SLK 5 (Fossil Fuels) factors make the mine Fossil fuels non-profitable. ➔ are made up of carbon-containing b) Strip mining - mostly used to (organic) molecules left over from the extract shallow, "bedded" deposits, bodies of tiny plants and animals that where a mineral layer is covered lived and died millions of years ago. by a layer of soft topsoil and 3 EARTH SCI ➔ are a non-renewable, finite resource that sea animals and algae or tiny sea plants includes coal, oil or petroleum and died and were buried on the ocean floor natural gas. over time they were covered by layers of ➔ is mainly the world’s source of energy. silt and sand. The energy obtained from fossil fuels is The process of forming a coal varies cheap and easy to obtain. from different areas depending on the ➔ formed in major phases and through plants and conditions that are present, time, pressure and temperature. but the overall process is similar. ➔ are used to power steam engines, There are two main phases of coal factories, generate electricity, used for formation: Peatrification and lighting, cooking, heating and many Coalification. Peatification is the process of partial others. decomposition of plant material in a swampy, waterlogged environment with Types of Fossil Fuels the action of bacteria forming a peat. 1. Coal - solid, black and readily Peat is the thick layer of spongy material combustible fossil fuel that contains formed from the accumulation of large amounts of carbon-based material partially decayed vegetation or organic often occurred in stratified sedimentary deposits. matter. Peat is the first step of coal 2. Petroleum - a fossil fuel that has been formation. created by the decomposition of marine Lignite also known as “brown coal” contains 60-70% carbon on a dry ash free organic matter over millions of years. A basis. naturally occurring liquid found beneath Bituminous coal or also known as “soft the earth’s surface that can be refined coal” which has a higher carbon into fuel such as gasoline, kerosene, and diesel oil. This liquid mixture of concentration of up to 86%. It is the most hydrocarbons is present in certain rock abundant type of coal used in electric strata beneath the earth’s surface. It is power plants and other commercial formed by the combination of purposes due to its lower moisture, and high heat value upon combustion. hydrocarbons and other substances, mainly Sulfur. Anthracite also known as “hard coal” Kinds of refined petroleum: which are black in color having an almost metallic luster. This coal type contains a. Gasoline - used to fuel cars, sport 86% carbon , least moisture and least utility vehicles, light trucks, and volatile, 14% on a dry- ash free basis. motorcycles., recreational vehicles and boats, small aircraft, Global warming is an increase of Earth’s equipment and tools used in average atmospheric temperature that construction, farming, forestry, causes corresponding changes in and landscaping and electricity climate that may result from the generators for portable and greenhouse effect. As the surface of the emergency power supply. Earth is heated by sunlight, a portion of b. Diesel - used to run turbines for this energy in the form of infrared the production of electricity for radiation is released back toward space. major industries Acid rain is any form of precipitation with c. Oil - used to produce electricity at acidic components such as sulfuric acid homes and shops also used as or nitric acid that fall to the ground from lubricant for machines in the atmosphere in a form of rain, snow, industries, fog, hail or even dust that is acidic. d. Kerosene - used for domestic These can deplete the nutrient of the soil purposes at home, used by affecting plant growth. It can also chemical industries to produce corrode surfaces and deteriorates plastics, dyes, synthetic rubber, limestone and marble made structures pesticides and perfume. like statue and monuments 3. Natural Gas - are colorless highly Oil spill is the release of a liquid flammable gaseous hydrocarbons petroleum hydrocarbon into the consisting primarily of methane and environment, especially the marine ethane. Natural gas is a type or ecosystem due to human activity and is a petroleum that commonly occurs in form of pollution. association with crude oil. Natural gas is Land, Air and Water pollution: Pollution is used for electricity generation, heating, contamination of land, water and air or cooking, and as a fuel for certain other parts of the environment that vehicles. It is also used as a chemical becomes dirty and not safe or suitable feedstock in the manufacture of plastics for use. The usual source of and is necessary for a wide array of contaminants that pollutes our air, land other chemical products including and water is the burning of fossil fuels. fertilizers and dyes. SLK 6 (Energy sources) Petroleum or Oil and Natural gas are Extracting heat from underground formed when large quantities of dead provides geothermal energy. organisms-primarily zooplanktons or tiny 4 EARTH SCI a. Renewable energy is a natural operation. They have two reservoirs at resource that can be replenished different heights. b. Non- renewable energy is a o When demand requires, water is natural resource that depletes released from the higher reservoir and cannot be replenished by any to the lower reservoir. natural means. o When there is excess production (e.g. wind or solar sources) the 1. Geothermal Energy - this heat can be surplus electricity is used to pump recovered using different geothermal water into the higher reservoir. technologies depending on the temperature. a. Low-temperature geothermal energy (20°C to 90 °C) uses geothermal heat and water for geothermal heating. b. Medium-temperature geothermal ROCKS energy (90 °C to 160 °C ) uses water A rock is a naturally occurring solid on the surface in liquid form. mixture of one or more minerals, or c. High-temperature geothermal organic matter energy ( above 160 °C) uses water classified by how they are formed, their and turns it into steam when it composition, and texture rocks change reaches the Earth’s surface. It over time through the rock cycle drives turbines to generate power. 2. Thermal Gradient - the adjective TYPES OF ROCKS 1. IGNEOUS ROCKS geothermal comes from the Greek words a. begins as magma. Magma can “geo” meaning Earth and “thermos” form: meaning Heat. It covers all techniques When rock is heated used to recover the heat that is naturally When pressure is released present in the Earth’s subsurface, b. When rock changes composition particularly in aquifers of the rock Magma freezes between 700 °C reservoir that contain groundwater. and 1,250 °C 3. Geothermal Reservoirs - are found in all ❖ Felsic the Earth’s sedimentary basins, but high- light colored rocks that are rich in temperature geothermal energy is most elements such as aluminum, likely to be found near volcanoes. potassium, silicon, and sodium ❖ Mafic HYDROPOWER dark colored rocks that are rich in Leading renewable energy calcium, iron, and magnesium, The kinetic energy generated by moving poor in silicon water has been used by humankind for ❖ Coarse-grained centuries, to drive watermills that takes longer to cool, giving produce mechanical energy. Then a mineral crystals more time to grow generator converts the mechanical ❖ Fine-grained energy from the turbine into electrical cools quickly with little to no energy. crystals Components: ❖ Intrusive Igneous Rocks a. A dam that creates a large magma pushes into surrounding waterfall and stores enough water rock below the Earth’s surface to supply the plant at all times as ❖ Extrusive rocks well as producing and storing forms when magma erupts onto energy. the Earth’s surface (lava), cools b. A penstock that channels water quickly with very small or no from its natural environment (river crystals formed or lake) to supply the dam Examples: Granite, Rhyolite, Gabbro, Basalt reservoir. It may be an open channel, a tunnel or pipeline. 2. METAMORPHIC ROCKS c. A powerhouse that houses the ➔ Meaning to change shape turbines driven by the waterfall ➔ Changes with temperature and and the generator driven by the pressure, but remains solid turbines. ➔ Usually takes place deep in the Run-of-river plants produce energy using Earth the flow of the river. With dams less than 25 meters high, these “small hydro” plants ❖ Contact metamorphism generate power continuously to meet heated by nearby magma daily needs. Increased temperature changes Off-stream plants are modular, meaning the composition of the rock, energy can be produced on demand with minerals are changed into dams used to create reservoirs that can ❖ Hornfels be released as required. Fine-grained non-foliated Pumped storage power plants are metamorphic rock produced by specifically designed for modular contact metamorphism 5 EARTH SCI ❖ Regional metamorphism ❖ Coal pressure builds up in rocks that is is an organic sedimentary rock deep within the Earth Large that forms from the accumulation pieces of the Earth’s crust collide and preservation of plant and the rock is deformed and materials, usually in a swamp chemically changed by heat and environment. pressure a combustible rock and along with ❖ Non-Foliated oil and natural gas it is one of the mineral grains are not arranged three most important fossil fuels. in plains or bands Marble is a ❖ Chemical sedimentary non-foliated metamorphic rock formed by precipitation of that is produced from the minerals from water. Precipitation metamorphism of limestone. is when dissolved materials come It is composed primarily of out of water. calcium carbonate. ❖ Organic sedimentary ❖ foliated remains of plants and animals contain aligned grains of flat Examples: coal, limestone, breccia, clastic minerals Gneiss is foliated metamorphic MINERALS rock that has a banded ★ Mineralogy appearance and is made up of ○ Study of minerals granular mineral grains. ○ Building blocks of rocks It typically contains abundant ★ Mineral quartz or feldspar minerals. ○ defined as naturally formed, Examples: Amphibolite, Quartzite, Phyllite, generally inorganic, crystalline Hornfels solid composed of an ordered array of atoms and having a 3. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS specific chemical composition. ➔ is formed by erosion. ➔ are moved from one place to MINERALS ARE… another 1. INORGANIC ➔ are deposited in layers with the 2. SOLIDS older ones on the bottom 3. ATOMS HAVE THE SAME CRYSTALLINE ➔ The layers become compacted PATTERN and with SPECIFIC CHEMICAL and cemented together COMPOSITION ➔ are formed at or near the Earth’s 4. CRYSTALLINE ATOMS surface ➔ No heat and pressure involved PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS ❖ Luster ❖ Strata the way light is reflected from a layers of rock mineral surface. ❖ Stratification ❖ Hardness the process in which sedimentary the mineral's resistance to being rocks are arranged in layers scratched. ❖ clastic Frederich Moh, a German made of fragments of rock mineralogist, prepared a scale of cemented together with calcite or hardness with a number of 1-10 in quartz the increasing hardness. ❖ Breccia ❖ Color And Streak is a term most often used for refers to the color of the clastic sedimentary rocks that are powdered mineral (COLOR) composed of large angular The sample is rubbed across a fragments (over two millimeters in piece of unglazed porcelain or diameter). streak plate. (STREAK) ❖ The spaces between the large angular color of the light spectrum of fragments can be filled with a matrix of minerals that has not been smaller particles or a mineral cement absorbed (SLK 3 (Minerals)) that binds the rock together. ❖ Cleavage ❖ Limestone Tendency of minerals to break is a sedimentary rock composed along planes of weak bonding. primarily of calcium carbonate Described by the number of (CaCO3) in the form of the mineral planes exhibited and the angles at calcite. which they meet It most commonly forms in clear, ❖ Fracture warm, shallow marine waters. do not exhibit cleavage are said It is usually an organic to fracture when broken. sedimentary rock that forms from Some break like glass, some into the accumulation of shell, coral, splinters or fiber. algal and fecal debris. 6 EARTH SCI ❖ Specific Gravity ❖ Control corrosion A number which represents the ❖ Use alloys whenever feasible ratio to the weight of an equal volume of water. ENERGY RESOURCES ❖ Crystal Form ➔ materials we use from nature such as External features of a mineral wind energy, water, plants, animals, and reflect its orderly internal fossil fuels to make the things we need. arrangement of atoms They are the basis of life on Earth. Minerals are naturally formed, rocks are 2 main categories: ★ Renewable Resources naturally occuring. ○ those that can be replaced or CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS never run out. Simple chemical test ○ Examples include solar energy, a. Taste test wind power, geothermal energy, hydroelectric energy, and NaCl (common table salt) biomass has a distinctly salty taste b. Fizz test + Solar Energy - the sun has produced energy in carbonate minerals in the form of heat and light. It is considered hydrochloric acid , giving unlimited carbon bubbles of dioxide + Wind Power - moving air created as the sun gas. heats the earth’s surface. As long as the sun is shining, the wind remains an infinite, renewable NATURAL RESOURCES resource. The Earth’s crust and oceans are the + Geothermal Energy - use heat from the earth sources of a wide variety of useful and to generate energy. Using geothermal heat essential minerals. pumps is a great way to heat or cool buildings. Renewable resources can be replenished. Nonrenewable are the same basic The earth is constantly being warmed up by its resources such as iron, aluminum and core so when we use geothermal energy, we copper. Others are fuels like oil, natural don’t use up resources. gas and coal. Gold is the precious metal which can be + Hydroelectric power- flowing water creates found pure in nature. Gold is a metal for energy that can be captured and turned into adornment, It exhibits a shiny yellow electricity. Water is constantly renewed by the color and a specific gravity of 29.3. water cycle Mercury reserves are located in Albay + Biomass - any material made by plants and and Palawan. animals that we can convert into energy. It is Our biggest lead deposits are found in considered renewable because we can always Ayala, Zamboanga. grow more plants and trees. Molybdenum deposits occur in Batangas. Types of Biomass ❖ Wood Platinum is a catalyst in refining When you burn wood in your petroleum. home, it releases energy which MINERALS IN THE PHILIPPINES heats your home 1. Nonmetallic ❖ Crops Crops like corn or sugarcane can a. Limestone - used to make be converted into a biofuel called concrete and cement. It is found in Cebu, Negros and Bulacan ethanol which can be used b. Feldspar – used in making tiles instead of gasoline in many cars. ❖ Animal Waste and ceramic toilet ware found in Animal waste such as cow manure Ilocos Norte and Pampanga is often used for fertilizer. c. Silica - used in making glass found in Palawan and Negros ★ Non-renewable Resources Occidental. ○ cannot be replaced at the same d. Clay - used for pottery found in rate it is being used. It takes a Ilocos Norte. e. Red marble - found in Romblon. long time to be replaced. ○ Non-renewable energy sources CONSERVING OUR MINERAL RESOURCES are fossil fuels: coal, natural gas, ❖ It took thousands or even millions of and oil. years to produce these resources. ❖ Mineral resources are non-renewable. Fossil fuels release heat energy when they are ❖ It is important for us to utilize wisely and burned and they are used to create energy and conserve our country’s wealth for future electricity. generations to come. Types of Fossil Fuels ❖ Coal We should: ❖ Recycle our products to reduce waste black or brownish rock. We burn ❖ Recover minerals from mine tailings coal to create energy. 7 EARTH SCI ❖ Oil ★ Solar cooking liquid fossil fuel. ★ Solar electric power generation ★ Solar thermal power production ❖ Natural Gas ★ Solar green houses give power to lights, TVs, air conditioners, and kitchen Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) appliances. ➔ a process that can produce electricity by using the temperature difference Burning fossil fuels are harmful to the between deep cold ocean water and environment. When coal and oil are burned, warm tropical surface waters. they release particles that can pollute the air, water, and land. OTEC plants pump large quantities of deep cold 📌Why are natural resources important? ➔ Without natural resources humans would seawater and surface seawater to run a power cycle and produce electricity. not survive. People use natural resources ADVANTAGES every day directly or indirectly. ★ Continuous, renewable and pollution free. More than 60% of resource use is towards food ★ Output of OTEC shows very little daily or and drink, mobility (cars, trains), and housing. seasonal variation. ★ Drawing of warm and cold sea water and Solar Energy returning of the sea water could be ➔ cleanest and most abundant renewable accomplished with minimum environmental impact. energy source available, ★ Electric power generated by OTEC could ➔ Modern technology can harness this be used to produce hydrogen. energy for myriad uses, which include generating electricity, providing light or a more comfortable interior environment, DISADVANTAGES and warming water for personal, ★ Capital investment is very high. commercial, or industrial use. ★ Conversion efficiency is very low about 3-4% due to small temperature differences between the surface water ADVANTAGES and deep water. ★ An immaculate and renewable energy ★ Low efficiency of these plants coupled source. with high capital and maintenance cost ★ Can be produced free of charge. makes them uneconomical for small ★ Will last forever. plants. ★ Causes no pollution. ★ Solar cells create no negative impact at all. APPLICATIONS ★ Almost no maintenance is required to ★ Power generation keep solar cells running. ★ Refrigeration and air conditioning of ★ There can be high return on an initial offshore and onshore structures investment because of the amount of ★ Desalinating water free energy a solar panel can produce. ★ Artificial fishing ★ Mineral exploration DISADVANTAGES Tidal Energy ★ has regularity issues; the sun does not ➔ tides are a regular phenomenon. They shine at night, and during the day there may be clouds or rain. can be predicted over months and years ★ Intermittency and idiosyncrasies of solar in advance. This is why the energy from energy make solar panels a less reliable this massive movement solution. ★ Require additional equipment. ADVANTAGES ★ For a constant supply of electric power, ★ Environment-friendly particularly for on-grid connections, ★ A highly predictable energy source photovoltaic panels require inverters as ★ High energy density well as storage batteries, increasing the ★ Operational and maintenance costs are initial investment. low ★ Moderately large areas are needed ★ An inexhaustible source of energy ★ Solar panel efficiency is generally low (between 14%-25%). DISADVANTAGES ★ They are fragile and can be damaged ★ High tidal power plant construction costs easily. ★ Negative influence on marine life forms ★ Location limits APPLICATIONS ★ Variable intensity of sea waves ★ Solar water heating ★ Solar heating of buildings APPLICATIONS ★ Solar distillation ★ Tidal electricity ★ Solar pumping ★ Grain mills ★ Solar drying of agricultural and animal ★ Energy storage products ★ Provide protection to coast in high ★ Solar furnaces storms 8 EARTH SCI Wind Energy Some of the possible hazards associated with ➔ process whereby wind is used to improper waste disposal: generate electricity. ❖ Pollution of bodies of waters ❖ Loss of habitat Wind turbines convert the kinetic wind energy ❖ Clogging of waterways /drainage system into mechanical power, which can be used for which can cause flooding specific tasks or to turn into electricity. ❖ Unsanitary conditions leading to the spread of disease and pests that carry ADVANTAGES disease ★ Reliable and infinite renewable energy ❖ Burning of waste can release toxic gasses resource ❖ Unsightly and destroys the natural ★ Cost effective, and prices are dropping beauty of the environment still ★ Reduces carbon emissions when used Republic act no. 9003 ★ Few running costs ➔ an act providing for an ecological solid ★ Offshore wind farms can take advantage waste management program, creating of offshore wind flow the necessary institutional mechanism and incentives, declaring certain acts DISADVANTAGES prohibited and providing penalties, ★ Can be unpredictable as the amount of appropriating funds therefore, and for electricity generated is dependent on the other purposes. speed and direction of the wind ★ Can affect the visual appearance of the Prohibited acts include: landscape ★ Littering, throwing, dumping of waste ★ Can damage the habitats of birds and matters in public places marine life ★ Undertaking activities in violation of ★ Can be expensive to construct sanitation operation ★ Open burning of solid waste In windmills (a much older technology), wind ★ Causing non-segregated waste energy is used to turn mechanical machinery to ★ Squatting in open dumps and landfills do physical work, such as crushing grain or ★ Open dumping, burying of pumping water. biodegradable materials in flood-prone areas ★ Unauthorized removal of recyclable Recently, wind energy has also been used to material desalinate water. ★ Mixing of source-separated recyclable material with other solid waste ❓ HUMAN ACTIVITY AND ENVIRONMENT Why is there a need for dumpsites? ➔ landfills allow the correct disposal of ★ Establishment open-dumps or operation of ★ Manufacturing, distributing, using, and solid urban waste, have a large waste importing consumer products that are reception capacity, reduce the risk of non environmentally-friendly materials environmental pollution, prevent disease ★ Importing toxic wastes misrepresented as transmission, keep water, the soil and the ‘recyclable’ or ‘with recyclable content’ air protected, reduce the risk of fire, and ★ Transporting and dumping in bulk in preserve the quality of life. areas other than facility centers ❓ How do nations normally dispose of large volume of waste? ★ Site preparation, construction, expansion or operation of waste management facilities without an Environmental ➔ sanitary landfill, incineration (is the Compliance Certificate and not high-temperature burning (rapid conforming with the land use plan of oxidation) of a waste) LGUs ★ Construction of establishment within 200 meters from dump sites or sanitary landfills ★ Operation of waste disposal facility on any aquifer, groundwater reservoir or watershed area ➔ Leachate from landfills can contaminate groundwater if not properly managed. It ❓ How much of the waste in figure 2 considered biodegradable? is can cause soil contamination and the production and release of methane (a greenhouse gas) from the decomposition ❓How ➔ 66% can we reduce the volume of waste? ➔ A large volume of the waste is of organic matter. ◆ Leachate is a liquid that has dissolved or entrained biodegradable. This can be used for environmentally harmful composting. An equally large proportion substances (contaminated fluid) of the waste can be recycled. Waste generation can also be minimized. Most of the waste in landfills are classified as ‘municipal waste’ or waste collected from 9 EARTH SCI residential houses, markets, among others (mostly in urban areas). Other sources of wastes and their environmental impact 1. Industrial waste ➔ released from manufacturing plants, such as chemical plants, cement production, textile industries, metallurgical plants, textile, food processing, power plants, etc. 2. Agricultural waste ➔ Excess use of fertilizers and pesticides can cause land and water pollution. ➔ Rice paddies release methane to the atmosphere. ➔ Excess excrement from poultry and other livestock can cause eutrophication of bodies of water ◆ Eutrophication- excessive richness of nutrients can cause algal blooms (dense growth of plant life), which can be detrimental to animal life due to lack of oxygen. 3. Mining waste ➔ generated from the exploitation of mineral resources ➔ Overburden material - ground (soil and rock) that is removed to extract the mineral deposit. ◆ Release of overburden material to the environment as a result of improper management can cause siltation of bodies of water. Siltation - pollution of water by silt or clay. ➔ Acid mine drainage - water that has come to contact with oxidized rock or overburden that contains sulphide material (coal, zinc, copper, and lead). ◆ When acid mine drainage is not properly managed, it can find its way into waterways and the groundwater. High pH waters can be detrimental to plant and animal life. 4. Biomedical Waste ➔ generated by hospitals and other health care institutions ➔ This type of hazardous waste includes infectious waste and chemical waste dangerous to people and the environment. 10