1PNU LET Reviewer General Education PDF

lOMoARcPSD|36126921 1PNU LET Reviewer General Education Education (World Citi College) Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education ENGLISH: Study and Thinking Skills...

lOMoARcPSD|36126921 1PNU LET Reviewer General Education Education (World Citi College) Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education ENGLISH: Study and Thinking Skills General:  Comprehend written text in English Specific:  Use strategies to efficiently search for information and learn from written texts in English  Apply study and critical reading skills in comprehending English texts I. Study Strategies and Thinking Skills  Study skills according to Graham and Robinson (1984) are specific abilities which students may use alone or in combination to learn the content of the curriculum on their own.  Harris and Smith (1986) state that study skills are those that enable a person to gather information and to organize it in such a way that requires analysis, interpretation and evaluation.  Klein, Peterson, and Simington (1991) claim that study skills are skills necessary for acquiring critical information from a variety of texts and media sources for differing purposes and uses.  Study skills are skills related to gathering and using information A. Remembering Information 1. Repetition—saying or writing information a number of times 2. Mnemonics—a technique to remember details such as: a. Acronyms are words that are formed by combining some parts (usually the first letters) of some other terms. The term is also used to refer to initialisms, which are combinations of letters representing a longer phrase. b. Abbreviations (from Latin brevis “short”) is strictly a shorter form of a word, but more particularly, is a letter or group of letters, taken from a word or words, and employed to represent them for the sake of brevity. c. Pegwords are words that rhyme with numbers and are used to build associations with the information to be remembered 1 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education d. Keywords are familiar words that lead the reader to the new words to be learned. They can be used to create mental images to remember new words and definitions. e. Rhymes are words with similar sounds usually found in poetry and songs f. Graphic Organizers—are visual representations that show how information is organized B. Underlining / Highlighting Highlighting and underlining engage the reader to select words, phrases and sentences, as well as, selecting the most important ideas and details in a reading. It makes information stand out so that you can find it easily when you go back to the text to study for a test. Systematically using different colored highlighter pens can make the review process even easier. Familiarity with the techniques is helpful to find rapidly what the reader needs when rereading the passage. 1. 2. 3. 4. Method for Underlining / Highlighting: Mark the main ideas and the major details differently. Underline the main ideas with a double line, and the major details with a single line or use a different color highlighter pen for each. Find main-idea sentences. Underline the sentences or parts of sentences that state the main idea of a paragraph. If the main ideas are only implied, write your own main-idea sentence in the margin. Find major details and underline these. Circle key words. Use brackets [], asterisks (*), or any other symbol to mark parts that are especially interesting or important to you. Write notes or comments to yourself in the margin. The margins are good places to put down your own thoughts as you read. Margin notes can help you connect ideas from different parts of the selection. They can also help you connect a passage with other material you have read, comments your teacher has made, or your own experience. C. Notetaking While Reading Note-taking is the practice of writing down pieces of information in a systematic way. It involves using your own words and a separate notebook to condense the key ideas you have marked in your text while annotating. 1. SQ3R (Rowntree, 1976:40-64) 2 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education a. Survey—flip through the chapter or book and note the layout, first and last chapters or paragraphs, look at the headings used, familiarize yourself with the reading. b. Question—ask questions about the way the reading is structured and think about the questions you will need to keep in mind while reading. Think about whether or not you think the book is relevant or if it’s current and if it suits the purpose of your study c. Read—read actively but quickly, looking for the main points of the reading—don’t take any notes—you might want to read through twice quickly. d. Recall—write down the main points of reading and any really important facts, and opinions that help support the main points. Also, record the bibliographic details e. Review—repeat the first three steps over and make sure you haven’t missed anything. At this point, you might like to finalize your notes and re-read your notes or write down how the material you’ve just covered relates to your question or task. 2. The PQ5R Method PQ5R is the mnemonic for an effective student regulated approach to studying the kind of material assigned everyday—textbooks. Gaining new information and ideas from a variety of different textbooks demands a balanced and flexible network of study strategies. a. Preview—know where you’re going first. You would never plunge in and try to cross rugged territory if you could have in advance an accurate map of the region. Here is you mental map of a textbook chapter: Examine the title. Read the introduction. Glance at the pictures, charts and diagrams. Read the wrap-up of the chapter—the summary and review questions. b. Question—work through the chapter—one manageable section at a time. A section marked off with a boldface or italic sideheading is likely to be the right size “bite” for you to digest. Be a human question mark. Go into each section with a question in your mind. Turn headings, and sometimes topic sentences, into questions. These should give you to the main points. c. Read—read to find the answer to your question and other important content. Unknown terms say, STOP! LOOK UP! LEARN! Remove these roadblocks. Each pictorial aid is saying, “This is clearing up something important.” Shift back-and-forth reading for pictures, diagrams, and charts. Shift your eyes (and thoughts) back and forth as needed from the printed words to the pictorial aid. Speed up and slow down as needed within the passage. Do stop-and-go reading. Thought time is needed in addition to reading time. Reread as often as necessary. Do “stop-and-go” reading. 3 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education d. Record—jot down or mark important ideas. Make the key ideas stand out in some way so they will “flag” you later. Use any combination of devices. Jot mini notes on a memo slip to be inserted between related pages or in the book’s margin. Draw vertical lines in the margin just to the left or right of important content. Bracket key ideas. Underline or color-accent selectively. Now you won’t have to reread the entire chapter when you return to review it later. Make key ideas “flag” you. e. Recite—Students exclaim, “I’ve read the chapter twice, but I still can’t remember it.” Solve this problem by using the most powerful techniques known to psychologists—the technique of self-recitation. As you complete a section or a paragraph, ask yourself, “Just what have I learned here?” Look away from the book while you self-recite, or cover the passage with your hand or with a convenient card (such as 5”x8” index card). Can you recite the important points to yourself in your own words? Now look back at the column of print, whenever you need to, and check your accuracy. Knowing you’re going to self-recite when you finish a section forces you to concentrate while you’re reading. f. Review—add a last quick run through. Can you recall the broad chapter plan? Run through the chapter to recall that plan. Next, run through it section by section, checking yourself once more on the main points and the important subpoints. Use you cover card again. Make some quick reviews later on from time to time. Long term memory does improve grades. g. Reflect—as you read a passage, turn on your critical thinking. Ask yourself:”What does this all mean? Is it true? How can I apply it?” reading and reflecting should be simultaneous and inseparable—built right into every step of PQ5R. 3. Annotating—is a system of marking that includes underlining and notations. A notation system is used for selecting important ideas that goes beyond straight lines and includes numbers, circles, stars, and written comments such as marginal notes, questions and keywords. Annotations are comments, notes, explanations, or other types of external remarks that can be attached to a document or to a selected part of a document. As they are external, it is possible to annotate any document independently, without needing to edit the document itself. From a technical point of view, annotations are usually seen as meta data, as they give additional information about an existing piece of data. How to use an annotation: a. Underline important terms b. Circle definitions and meanings c. Write key words and definitions in the margin d. Signal where important information can be found with key words or symbols in the margin e. Write short summaries in the margin at the end of sub-units. 4 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education f. Write the questions in the margin next to the section where the answer is found g. Indicate steps in a process by using numbers in the margin. 4. The Cornell Method – this note-taking method has been devised 40 years ago by Walter Pauk, a lecturer at the Cornell University. This method is used by dividing the paper in two columns. The first column is used to enter key or cue words while the second is the notes column (for recording ideas and facts). There are six steps to Cornell note-taking: a. Record—during the lecture, record as many facts and ideas as possible in the notes column. b. Reduce—after the lecture, read through the notes taken and reduce to key words and phrases, or questions. The key words and phrases are used as cues to help recall the ideas and facts. The questions are to add clarity to the facts and ideas. c. Recite—using only the key words, phrases and questions in the cue word column recite the ideas and facts in the notes column. It is important that you are not just mechanically repeating, but using your own words. d. Reflect—based on the facts and ideas learnt, reflect upon how this fits in with what you already know, and how this knowledge can be applied. e. Review—on a frequent basis, review your past notes by reciting and reflecting upon them f. Recapitulate—after you have reduced, recited and reflected upon your note, you should recapitulate each main idea using complete sentences at the bottom of the key word column. 2.5” CUE C O L U M N 6” Note- Taking Area 5 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education 2” Summaries CORNELL METHOD 5. Concept maps and Mind Maps—the idea is to map out concepts, either as they are found or receives during the Review process in the Cornell or SQ3R method. Mind maps (i.e., hierarchical trees) can be used to take lecture notes in real time, but more often to recognize concepts into a hierarchical tree. Concept maps allow to visualize more complex relationships between different concepts. They allow for example to integrate old and new knowledge and to construct a representation of a complex concept. Finally, concept maps also can be used a design tool. For example, after the initial literature review for a paper or a thesis, a student may create a conjecture map that relates theory to design to observable process to outcomes. 6. Charting—is a method that helps to summarize the most important concepts found in articles and to identify implicit relations (what concepts go together and which authors). This concept charting technique uses a table with columns representing concepts and rows representing a text. 7. Outlining—is a short verbal sketch that show in skeleton form the pattern of ideas in text or a draft prepared for speaking or writing often with main and subideas highlighted by numbers and letters. It is a form of notetaking that gives a quick display of key issues and essential supporting details. It shows indentions, numbers, and letters to show levels of importance. TWO ACCEPTED OUTLINE FORMATS Roman and Arabic Number and Letter System Decimal Numbering System Title 1. 2. Title I. II. A. 2.1 1. 2. 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 a. b. 2.2 3. 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 B. 1. 2. 2.4 6 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education III. 3 D. Skimming and Scanning 1. Skimming—means reading only small parts of a text in order to get an overview of the organization of the text and its main ideas. When skimming a paragraph or a page, you are searching quickly among the sentences for the answers to your questions. Here is how to skim: a. Make sure that you know what information you are looking for, ask yourself a question, and look for a keyword. b. Move your eyes quickly from line to line and from sentence to sentence c. When you think you have found what you are looking for, stop. d. Read slowly the part of the line or sentence that tells you what you want to know e. Think about the question you were trying to answer. f. Does the information you found answer the question? If not, quickly read the passage again to look for the information you need. g. Jot down the answer to the question you’ve asked. 2. Scanning—involves looking quickly through a text to find a specific word or piece of information. Instead or reading every word on page, readers move eyes quickly, searching for what is needed. Guidelines for Scanning: a. Understand the organization of the material b. Stay focused on what you are looking for c. Use whatever clues are available to speed your search d. Confirm your information. E. Summarizing—is a method used in stating the main idea and significant supporting details into short, concise statements about the material you have read. Summaries are full pieces of writing that fit together a selection’s facts and ideas in readable sentences and paragraphs which are shorter versions of the original. F. Test-taking Strategies 1. Read to comprehend—concentrate on the main idea of the passage and avoid fixating on details 2. Interact with the passage—predict the topic and activate schema; monitor and self-correct 3. Anticipate—read the first sentence carefully, it usually gives clues of what is to come 4. Relax—plan your time and concentrate 5. Recall—remind yourself of the author’s main point 7 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education 6. Understand major question types—test questions that follow certain predictable patterns a. Main Idea Questions—ask to identify the author’s main point b. Detail Questions—check your ability to understand material that is directly stated in the passage c. Implied Meaning Questions—deals with the attitudes and feelings of the writer that emerges behind or between words where in favourable and unfavourable descriptions suggest positive and negative opinion towards the subject d. Purpose Questions—the purpose of the passage which is not usually stated but implied and is related to the main idea e. Vocabulary Questions—test general knowledge as well as the ability to figure out meaning by using context clues 7. Multiple-Choice and True-False Tests a. Read all options b. Predict the correct answer c. Avoid answers with “100 Percent” words d. Consider answers with qualifying words e. Do not Overgeneralize f. True statements must be true without exception g. If two options are synonymous, eliminate both h. Figure out the difference between similar options i. Use logical reasoning when two answers are correct j. Look suspiciously at directly quoted pompous phrases k. Simplify double negatives by cancelling out both l. Certain responses are neither true or false m. Validate true responses n. Recognize flaws in test taking o Grammar o Clues from other parts of the test o Length o Absurd ideas and emotional words II. Reading Comprehension A. Critical Reading 1. Recognize the author’s purpose or intent a. To inform. Authors use facts to inform, to explain, to educate, and to enlighten b. To persuade. Authors use a combination of facts and opinions to persuade, to argue, to condemn and to ridicule c. To entertain. Authors use fiction and non-fiction to entertain, to narrate, to describe, and to shock. 2. Recognize the author’s point of view or bias 8 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education a. Point of view refers to the opinions and beliefs of the author of the reader, and a critical reader must recognize how those beliefs influence the message. b. Bias is a word closely related to point of view but tends to be associated with prejudice, and thus t has a negative connotation. It is an opinion or judgment that may be based on solid facts or on incorrect information but leans to one side, unequally presenting evidence and arguments. 3. Recognize the author’s tone The author’s tone describes the writer’s attitude toward the subject. To determine the tone, pick up clues from the choice of words and details. As a critical reader, tune in to the author’s tone by letting attitude become a part of evaluating the message. 4. Distinguish fact from opinion a. Fact is s statement that can be proven true or false. It is an observation that can be supported with direct evidence and is something own by actual experience b. Opinion is a statement of feeling that cannot be proven right or wrong. It can be a commentary, position or observation based on fact but represents a personal judgement, belief, feeling or interpretations of these facts. c. Recognize valid and invalid support for arguments Fallacy is an error in reasoning that can give an illusion of support. On the surface it appears to add support but closer examination shows it to be unrelated and illogical. They are particularly present in propaganda, a form of writing designed to convince the reader by whatever means possible. The following list describes some propaganda techniques: o Testimonials: celebrities who are not experts state support o Bandwagon: you will be left out if you do not join the crowd o Transfer: s famous person is associated with an argument o Straw Person: a simplistic exaggeration is set up to represent the argument o Misleading Analogy: two things are compared as similar that are actually distinctly different o Circular Reasoning: the conclusion is supported by restating it. B. Functional Reading Readings often contain more than just words. Graphics accompany text and knowing how to read these visual aids help the reader how to relate it to the ideas of the selection. 9 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education 1. Photographs—to interpret photographs, you need to be able to identify what is being represented and then to infer moods, attitudes, and relations that help give life to the pictures, particularly if they are of people 2. Diagrams—are drawings with labelled parts. Notice what the separate parts represented and see how they work together. Labels and captions usually point out the key features and explain how parts relate to each other. 3. Word Charts—presents information in summary form to make material easy to find. Instead of using sentences in a paragraph, a writer can present complex information in chart form 4. Statistical Tables—present numbers in chart form. Often, the numbers appear in columns with headings to explain what the numbers represent. 5. Graphs—present statistics visually with lines, bars, or circles that show how statistics compare with each other. 6. Maps—visually condense material to show relationships. It is a diagram that places important topics in a central location and connects major points and supporting details in a visual display that shows degrees of importance which uses space in a free and graphic manner 7. Charts—give information in an abbreviated outline form. C. Active Reading 1. The main idea of a passage is the core of the material, the particular point the author is trying to convey. The main idea of a passage can be stated in one sentence that condenses specific ideas or details in the passage into a general, all-inclusive statement of the author’s message. Steps in determining the main idea: a. Recognize general and specific words—look for specific ideas presented in the sentences and decide on a general topic or subject under which the ideas can be grouped. The general term encompasses or categorizes the ideas and is considered the topic of the list. b. Recognize general and specific phrases—topics of passages are more often stated as phrases rather than single words c. Recognize the General Topic for Sentences—sentences are related to a single subject, with two of the sentences expressing specific support and one sentence expressing the general idea about the subject. d. Differentiate Topic, Main Idea, and Supporting Details e. Questioning for the Main Idea o Question: Who or what is this about? o Question: What are the important details? 10 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education Question: What main idea is the author trying to convey about the topic? Stated Main Ideas—are directly stated, particularly at the beginning of the passage. Such an initial main idea statement, thesis statement, or topic sentence is a signpost for readers, briefing them on what to expect. This thesis or main idea statement provides an overview of the author’s message and connects the supporting details. Unstated Main Ideas—when the main idea is not directly stated, it is said to be implied, which means it is suggested in the thoughts that are revealed. In this case, the author has presented a complete idea, but for reasons of style and impact has chosen not to express it concisely in one sentence. As a reader, it is your job to connect the details systematically and focus the message. Getting the Main Idea of Longer Selections—longer selections have several major ideas contributing to the main point and many paragraphs of supporting details. To pull the ideas together under one central theme, an additional step is necessary: Simplify the material by organizing paragraphs or pages into manageable subsections and then deciding how each subsection contributes to the whole. The following questions can help you determine the central theme for a longer selection: a. What is the significance of the title? What does the title suggest about the topic? b. How does the first paragraph suggest the topic or thesis? c. Under what subsections can the paragraphs and ideas be grouped? d. How do these subsections support the whole? e. What is the overall topic? f. What point is the author trying to convey? The supporting details develop, explain, and prove the main idea. They can be facts, descriptions, and reasons that convince the reader and make the material interesting. Details answer questions and paint visual images so the reader has an experience with the author and sees what the author sees and understands. Details can be ranked by their level of importance in supporting a topic. Some details offer major support and elaboration, whereas others merely provide illustrations to relate the material to the reader’s prior knowledge and make visualizing easier. How does a reader grasp the main idea of a selection? a. Determine the topic of the text. Use the tile to predict the topic. b. Ask yourself, “What topic is discussed?” to point out the focus of the topic. c. Review the title to hypothesize about the writer’s pattern of text organization. Generally, the rhetorical pattern chosen showcases the main ideas and the supporting ideas. o 2. 3. 4. 5. 11 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education Doing the three steps given will help the readers to come up with a main idea even prior to the reading of the actual text. The formula to construct or state the main idea is: mi = p + f +t Where: mi = main idea p = pattern of organization f = focus of discussion t = topic Read the entire selection to confirm if the main idea you have predicated matches the writer’s main idea. If there is a match, the purpose of your reading is to look for the support ideas. Jot down all the important notes that relate to the main idea. However, if there is a mismatch between you main idea and the writer’s main idea, revise or change your hypothesis before you gather the support ideas. Evaluate the notes that you hjave written, and synthesize the ideas you gathered from steps 1-4 to summarize the infformational text in two or three sentences. The formula for summary of an expository text is: Set = mi + si + (sd) Where: Set = summary of expository text mi = main idea (p + f + t) si = support idea sd = support detail ENGLISH: Academic Writing General:  Use English accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately in written discourse I. COMMON SENTENCE ERRORS A. Fragments SENTENCE FRAGMENT fails to be a sentence in the sense that it cannot stand by itself. It does not contain even one independent clause. 12 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education There are several reasons why a group of words may seem to act like a sentence but not have the wherewithal to make it as a complete thought. 1. It may locate something in time and place with a prepositional phrase or a series of such phrases, but it’s lacking a proper subjectverb relationship within an independent clause: In Japan, during the last war and just before the armistice. 2. It describes something, but there is no subject-verb relationship: Working far into the night in an effort to salvage her little boat. 3. It may have most of the makings of a sentence but still be missing an important part of a verb string: Some of the students working in Professor Espinoza’s laboratory last semester. 4. It may even have a subject-verb relationship, but it has been subordinated to another idea by a dependent word and so cannot stand by itself: Even though he head the better arguments and was by far the more powerful speaker. Dependent Word Fragments Some words that begin with a dependent word are fragments. Following is a list of common dependent words. Whenever you start a sentence with one of these words, you must be careful that a fragment does not result. Dependent Words after if, even if when, whenever even though although, though in order that where, wherever until as since whether who, whose because that, so that which, whichever how before unless while what, whatever B. Run-on Sentences and Comma Splice A run-on is two complete thoughts that are run together with no adequate sign given to mark the break between them. Some run-ons have no punctuation at all to mark the break between the thoughts. Such run-ons are known as fused sentence: they are fused, or joined together, as if they were only one thought. Three ways to correct run-on sentences: 1. Place a semicolon in between the two sentences. Jim’s father passed the board exam for merchant marine officers; he will be the captain of the ship next month. 13 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education 2. Add a transitional marker: a subordinating conjunction (it depends upon the nature of the sentence) between the two sentences. Jim’s father passed the board exam for merchant marine officers, and he will be the captain of the ship next month. 3. Divide the sentence into two. Jim’s father passed the board exam for merchant marine officers. He will be the captain of the ship next month.  A comma splice is committed when a writer uses a comma without the proper connective. This, according to Tiempo and Tiempo, “destroys the unity of the sentence.” The sample sentence below looks almost the same with the sample run-on sentence. The only difference is the fact that the sentences uses a comma to divide the two independent clauses. The crowd cheered loudly when the band manager from the backstage, Eric stood quietly. Fused Sentences The bus stopped suddenly. I spilled coffee all over my shirt. Mario told everyone in the room to be quiet his favourite show was on. In other run-ons, known as comma splices, a comma is used to connect or “splice” together, the two complete thoughts. Some stronger connection than a comma alone is needed. Comma Splices The bus stopped suddenly, I spilled coffee all over my shirt. Mario told everyone in the room to be quiet, his favourite show was on. C. Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers We often use phrases to describe words within sentences, and we determine the meaning of our sentences by placing these descriptive phrases next to the words they point to or “modify.” For example, the sentence, “I saw a boy running down the street,” indicates that the “boy” was doing the running. However, if we wrote, “Running down the street, I saw the boy,” we would be suggesting to readers that “I” was doing the running. Misplaced Modifier Sometimes we become careless and place descriptive phrases far away from the words they modify, making our sentences unclear or inaccurate. We call these phrases misplaced modifiers. For example, in “I was told that I had been awarded the scholarship by my professor,” does the underlined phrase mean that the professor did the telling or the awarding? If the professor did the telling, we could make the meaning of this sentence clearer by repositioning the phrase: “I was told by my professor that I had been awarded the scholarship.” 14 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education Dangling Modifiers Other time we write descriptive phrases that point to or modify words that are not clearly stated in our sentences, making our sentences illogical. We call these phrases dangling modifiers. For example, in “Walking to college on a subzero morning, my left ear became frozen,” the underline phrase modifies “my left ear.” This doesn’t make sense; some person must have been doing the walking. We can clarify the sentence by putting a logical word after the phrase: for example, “Walking to college on a subzero morning, I froze my left ear.” Or, we can change the phrase so that it has a logical subject and verb in it: “When I was walking to college on a subzero morning, my left ear became frozen.” Examples of Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers On July 20, 1969, American astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin landed on the moon, watched nearly by a fifth of the world’s population. Revision: Watched nearly by a fifth of the world’s population, American astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin landed on the moon on July 20, 1969. (The world was not watching the moon; the world was watching the astronauts) After seeing the benefits of reduced employee turnover, absenteeism, and lateness, onsite daycare is being provided more frequently as a perk for working parents. Revision: After seeing the benefits of reduced employee turnover, absenteeism, and lateness, more and more companies are providing onsite daycare as a perk for working parents. (Onsite daycare is not seeing the benefits of reduced turnover, absenteeism and lateness; companies are seeing these benefits as a result of onsite daycare.) An author who did not receive much attention until after her death, readers of all ages enjoy Emily Dickinson’s poetry today. or Readers of all ages enjoy Emily Dickinson’s poetry today, an author who did not receive much attention until after her death Revision: Today, readers of all ages enjoy the poetry of Emily Dickinson, an author who did not receive much attention until after her death. 15 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education (The phrase, an author who did not receive much attention until after her death, should modify Emily Dickinson rather than readers or Emily Dickinson’s poetry) Cost-efficient and convenient, many of today’s corporate employees are being trained through computer-assisted instruction. Revision: Cost-efficient and convenient, computer-assisted instruction is being used by many companies to train employees. (The descriptive words, cost-efficient and convenient, modify computerassisted instruction rather than today’s corporate employees.) Having submitted the conference registration form after the deadline, special permission by the chairperson was needed before she could give her presentation. Revision: Having submitted the conference registration form after the deadline, Susan needed special permission from the chairperson before she could give her presentation. (The example doesn’t make sense as it is written. Someone must have submitted the form late. According to the revision, Susan submitted the form late.) When purchasing a cellular phone, the wide variety of calling plans and features overwhelms many people. Revision: When purchasing a cellular phone, many people become overwhelmed by the wide variety of calling plans and features. (The calling plans and features aren’t purchasing cellular phones. People purchase cellular phones) D. Faulty Parallelism Words in a pair or series should have parallel structure. By balancing the items in a pair or series so that they have the same kind of structure, you will make the sentences clearer and easier to read. Nonparallel (Not Balanced) My job includes checking the inventories, initialling the order, and to call the suppliers. Parallel (Balanced) 16 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education My job includes checking the inventory, initializing the orders, and calling the suppliers. (A balanced series of –ing words: checking, initialling, calling) Nonparallel (Not Balanced) The game-show contestant was told to be cheerful, charming, and with enthusiasm. Parallel (Balanced) The game-show contestant was told to be cheerful, charming and enthusiastic. (A balanced series of descriptive words: cheerful, charming, enthusiastic) Nonparallel (Not Balanced) Grandmother likes to read mystery novels, to do needle point, and browsing the Internet on her home computer. Parallel (Balanced) Grandmother likes to read mystery novels, to do needle point, and to browse the Internet on her home computer. (A balanced series of to verbs: to read, to do, to browse) Nonparallel (Not Balanced) We painted the trim in the living room; the wallpaper was put up by a professional. Parallel (Balanced) We painted the trim in the living room; a professional put up the wallpaper. (Balanced verbs and word order: We painted…; a professional put up…) E. Faulty Coordination The Coordinating Conjunction Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses. And, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet—these are the seven coordinating conjunctions. Look at the examples that follow: 1. The bowl of squid eyeball stew is hot and delicious. 2. The squid eyeball stew is so thick that you can eat it with a fork or spoon. 3. Rocky, my orange tomcat, loves having his head scratched but hates getting his claws trimmed. 4. Rocky terrorizes the poodles next door yet adores German shepherds across the street. 5. Rocky refuses to eat dry cat food, nor will he touch a saucer of squid eyeball stew. 6. I hate to waste a single drop of squid eyeball stew, for it is expensive and time-consuming to make. 7. Even though I added cream to the squid eyeball stew, Rocky ignored his serving, so I got a spoon and ate it myself. 17 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education F. Subordination Subordination, however, emphasizes the idea in the main clause more than one is the subordinate clause. Generally, the patterns look like these: main clause + Ø + subordinate clause. subordinate clause +, + main clause. Punctuate coordinating conjunctions correctly. Three patterns in writing use coordinating conjunctions. Add commas when required. Pattern 1—Connecting two main clauses. When you connect two main clauses with a coordinating conjunction, use a comma. The pattern looks like this: main clause + , + coordinating conjunction + main clause. Here is an example: While I am at work, my dog Floyd sleeps on the bed, and my cat Buster naps in the bathtub. Pattern 2—Connecting two items. You can also use a coordinating conjunction to connect any two items. These items can be any grammatical unit except main clauses. The pattern looks like this: item + Ø + coordinating conjunction +item. Here are some examples: My dog Floyd has too many fleas and too much hair. My cat Buster has beautiful blue eyes but a destructive personality. Pattern 3—Connecting three or more items in a series When you have three or more items in a series, you generally use a comma before the coordinating conjunction. Some handbooks and style guides tell you that this comma is optional, but my advice is to put it in. the pattern looks like this: item + , + item + , + coordinating conjunction + item. Here is an example: Swatting olives off the kitchen counter, dragging toilet paper streamers through the house, and terrorizing Jacques Cousteau, the parakeet, have consumed another of Buster’s days. Subordinating Conjunctions 18 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate clause to a main clause. An adverb clause is always introduced by a subordinating conjunction. A noun clause and adjective clause sometimes are. Adverb clause: Before you go, sign the log book. Noun clause: He asked if he could leave early. Adjective clause: That is the place where he was last seen. A subordinating conjunction is always followed by a clause. Many subordinating conjunctions can be other parts of speech. Adverb: Jill came tumbling after. Preposition: Jill came after Jack. Subordinating Conjunction: Jill came tumbling after Jack had fallen. II. THE TOPIC SENTENCE AND THE PARAGRAPH A good paragraph contains several related sentences that support one main idea, which is limited to and focused in one sentence. This sentence helps guide the reader through the related sentence in the paragraph. The term used to identify this main idea is topic sentence. A topic sentence has two parts: A topic (key word or phrase) A direction or general word, which may be a conclusion, an opinion, or statement about the topic. For example, the following sentences could be topic sentences: Doing housework can be very boring. Browsing in a library is an exciting experience. My trip to the botanical garden taught me a lot. You could use each one of these sentences as a topic sentence because each main idea is limited to and focused into two essential parts: a topic (key word or phrase) and a general direction (conclusion or opinion) about the topic: Topic Direction or General Word Doing housework is very boring Browsing in a library is an exciting experience The Paragraph A paragraph has three parts: 1. A topic sentence 2. Support sentences 3. A conclusion The following is an example of a paragraph that has these three parts: My blind date last night was a disaster. I got wet because just as I stopped to pick up my date, it started raining, and she borrowed my raincoat. At dinner, she ate so much that I had to use my next day’s lunch money to pay for her meal. I had a terrible time because she could not dance. To make matters worse, I 19 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education had a cut on my lip that hurt when I kissed her. That’s the last blind date I will ever have. Elements of a Strong Paragraph Strong paragraphs need to have the following elements: completeness, logical or sensible order, unity and coherence. Completeness A paragraph must have enough information in it to give the reader a clearer picture or a full discussion of its main idea (the topic sentence). A paragraph without details or examples will be vague and unconvincing. A paragraph that does not have enough information is called incomplete or undeveloped. Example of an undeveloped paragraph: Dancing can be good exercise. It can be entertaining. It can be lot of fun as well. Dancing can be very beneficial to everyone. Example of a complete paragraph: Dancing can be good exercise. The constant arm and leg movements are like aerobics. They can be a really good workout if the dance lasts long enough. If the dance requires lot of quick movements, many calories can be used up, and more fat will be burned. Some dances require movements that are like stretching, so flexibility and muscle tone will be increased. Dancing can help maintain weight and can be beneficial exercise to everyone. Logical Order All support sentences should be in clear, logical order. Sometimes the order of these supporting details does not matter. Other times, however, it does matter because if the sentences are not in logical order, the reader misses the main point of the paragraph. Illogical Order: I opened the front door of my house and went inside. I walked up the fronts steps to my front door. Logical Order: I walked up the front steps to my front door. I opened the door of my house and went inside. Unity All sentences in a good paragraph relate to the topic sentence (main idea). When any idea doesn’t relate specifically to the topic sentence, then that paragraph lacks unity or is not unified. Example of a unified paragraph: American scientists are working hard to gather facts about sea turtles called leatherbacks. The observers work, no matter what the weather is like—on clear days or in pouring rain. They count the turtles lay their egg, the 20 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education scientists walk up and down the beaches for many hours at a time. They count the eggs in the sand. Then, later, they count the eggs that hatch. These biologists know that they are collecting information that will someday be important to other scientists. Coherence One of the most important considerations in writing a paragraph is coherence—the way all the sentences should be clearly connected to each other. Without connecting words or phrases, supporting ideas may be hard to follow and sometimes may even seem to be unrelated to the topic sentence and to each other. The following paragraph has all the coherence it needs: When Sue was a child, she learned from her Dad how to be hard worker. For example, she always helped in the yard. Many times they mowed the lawn together. Sue emptied the grass catcher (which her dad did not overfill), and he did the heavy part by lifting the barrels full of grass. Working together, they did not quit until the job was done. She and her dad worked even after the sun was gone, making sure the edges of the lawn were neat. In this way, Sue learned to stay with a job until she had done well and could feel proud of her effort. Table of Transitional / Cohesive Devices Function Traditional / Cohesive Device To show addition again, also, and, then, besides, equally important, finally, first, further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, last, likewise, moreover, next, or, still, then, too To compare also, in comparison, in the same way, likewise, similarly To contrast although, and yet, at the same time, but, conversely, despite, even so, even though, for all that, however, in contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, regardless, still, though, yet To give examples or intensify after all, as an illustration, certainly, even, for example, for instance, indeed, in fact, it is true that, namely, of course, specifically, that is, to be sure, to illustrate, to tell the truth, truly To all in all, together, as a result, as had been noted, basically, 21 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education summarize, repeat, or conclude finally, in brief, in conclusion, in other words, in particular, in short, simpler terms, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to put it differently, to summarize To indicate place above, adjacent to, below, elsewhere, farther on, here, nearby, on the other side, opposite to, there, to the east, to the left To indicate time after a while, afterward, as long as, as soon as, at length, at that time, before, currently, earlier, eventually, first (second, third, etc.), finally, formerly, immediately, in the meantime, in the past (future), lately, later, meanwhile, now, presently, shortly, simultaneously, since, so far, soon, still, subsequently, then, thereafter, until, until now, when, while To indicate cause and effect accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this purpose, hence, otherwise, since, so, then, therefore, thereupon, thus, to this end, with this object The Thesis Statement In a nutshell, a thesis statement:  Tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under discussion  Is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the rest of the paper  Directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a question or subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of an essay might be on Poverty or a movie analysis; a thesis must then offer a way to understand the issue or the movie  Makes a claim that others might dispute  Is usually a single sentence somewhere in your first paragraph that presents your argument to the reader. The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of the logic of your interpretation. You can tell if your thesis is strong if you can answer the following:  Do I answer the question? Re-reading the question prompt after constructing a working thesis can help you fix an argument that misses the focus of the question.  Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? If your thesis simply states facts that no one would, or even could, disagree with, it’s possible that you are simply providing a summary, rather than making an argument. 22 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education     Is my thesis statement specific enough? Thesis statements that are too vague often do not have a strong argument. Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? If a reader’s first response is, “So what?” then you need to clarify, to forge a relationship, or to connect to a larger issue. Does my essay support my thesis specifically and without wandering? If your thesis and the body of your essay do not seem to go together, one of them has to change. Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? If a reader’s response is “how?” or “why?” your thesis may be too open-ended and lack guidance for the reader. Broadly, thesis statements can be divided into 3 categories:  Analytical: An analytical thesis basically provides a comprehensive insight to some important issue and the facts that are related to the issue plus the analytical aspects of the same. For example, “An analysis of the ferruginous hawk reveals two kinds of flight patterns: patterns related to hunting prey and patterns related to courtship.”  Expository: This is the simplest of all types of thesis, the expansionary thesis principally puts forth some facts and simplified explanations regarding a specific idea, in front of the people. Example: watching too much television may lead to physiological and psychological problems.  Argumentative: the third type is that of the argumentative thesis and presents arguments between two viewpoints. Example: Smoking should be banned in all public places. III. PATTERNS OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT There are various Writing Genres or Patterns of Paragraph Development, and each pattern or genre has a specific function. Often, these genres are merged with each other to make the written output more effective. Narration  Use narration to establish a series of events that tells the reader what happened. Narration follows a chronological pattern of development. It is a convincing mode of paragraph development to the extent that it tells a coherent story. Larry suddenly woke up from a deep sleep. The sun was dazzling his halfopen eyes, and he couldn’t figure out what time it was. The door to his room was closed; the house was immersed in some sort of reckless silence. He slowly got out 23 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education of his bed and approached the bench right next to the window. For a moment, he thought, he heard a tapping sound coming from the attic. Then again he heard the sound, only this time it seemed to be somewhat closer. He looked outside the window and saw a man going by the left side of the road. On seeing Larry, the man approached his garden’s fence and whistled. At this point, Larry recognized Nick and waved his hand. He quickly got dressed and was about to get down to open the gate, but he again heard someone murmuring in the other part of the house. Larry decided to go to the attic and see what was causing this, now buzzing, sound. He got to the second floor of his house and looked toward the attic. He quickly opened its door and looked inside. Nothing was found. He was about to turn back and attend to his guest when he, suddenly slipped on the stairs and fell. He called out to Nick to help him get up. Descriptive Essay  The descriptive essay relies on concrete, sensory detail to communicate its point.  When writing a descriptive essay, writers should have a broad fund of modifiers, i.e., adjectives. Moreover, writers should be specific in using adjectives and other words that would describe the topic, i.e., beautiful may be different from pretty, cute, gorgeous, etc. Process Essay  A process essay may either be “how to do” or “How something works”  In a “How to do” essay the objective of the writer is to tell the reader how a certain product is produced. Most often, this type of essay uses the first person point of view because it “demonstrates” how something is does to the reader (e.g. How to apply for the Fulbright Scholarship Grant) Sample Descriptive Paragraph My most valuable possession is an old, slightly warped blond guitar—the first instrument I taught myself how to play. It’s not play. It’s nothing fancy, just a Madeira folk guitar, all scuffed and scratched and finger-printed. At the top is a bramble of copper-wound strings, each one hooked through the eye of a silver tuning key. The strings are stretched down a long, slim neck, its frets tarnished, the wood worn by years of fingers pressing chords and picking notes. The body of the Madeira is shaped like an enormous yellow pear, one that was slightly damaged in shipping. The blond wood has been chipped and gouged to gray, particularly where the pick guard fell off years ago. No, it’s not a beautiful instrument, but it still lets me make music, and for that I will always treasure it. Sample Process Paragraph 24 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education The writing process has four distinct phases. (2) The first is invention, which is aided by any number of techniques, including free-writing, mind-mapping and outlining. (3) In this first stage, it’s important for a writer not to edit but to let ideas flow and simply get them down on paper. (4) After invention, comes the first draft— the stage where the ideas start to take shape. (5) Many writers use a sentence outline at this stage to see where they need to cut and where they need to add material. The first draft is also where writers should develop a tentative thesis to guide the structure of the essay. (6) The next stage of the process is when both the second and third drafts are done. (7) Here, ideas and structure are refined, and the thesis is revised until it becomes the unifying idea of the paper. (8) Finally, comes the last stage, that of editing. (9) Writers should take care at this stage that all sentence structure and punctuation is correct, and they should make corrections to documentation format as needed. (10) Writers often repeat four phases more than once, or skip a phase and go back to it, making the writing process more cyclical than linear. Comparison-Contrast  A comparison-contrast essay presents the relationship between two items; this may be in the form of similarities and differences.  This essay may be organized by using either the “point by point organization” or the “block organization” Point-by-Point or Alternating Arrangement I. Introduction in which you state your purpose II. First difference A. Topic 1 B. Topic 2 III. Second difference A. Topic 1 B. Topic 2 IV. Third Difference A. Topic 1 B. Topic 2 V. Conclusion  In the “block organization,” the focus is on the two topics 25 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education Block Arrangement I. Introduction in which you state your purpose II. Topic 1 A. Similarity / Difference or Factor 1 B. Similarity / Difference or Factor 1 C. Similarity / Difference or Factor 1 III. Topic 1 A. Similarity / Difference or Factor 1 B. Similarity / Difference or Factor 1 C. Similarity / Difference or Factor 1 IV. Conclusion Sample Comparison-Contrast Paragraph A scientist and a poet both strive for perfection: the poet refines his sensibilities, while the scientist reduces everything to precise measurements. Both share the beauty of a rainbow; but while the poet imagines a pot of gold at the end of it, the scientist wants to spell it out in angstrom units measuring wavelength. Cause-Effect  The cause-effect essay presents the reasons or results for something.  There are two possible ways to outline a cause-effect essay: (a) single cause, multiple effects of (b) multiple causes, single effect. Sample Cause-Effect Paragraph The tropical rainforests of West Africa, Brazil, Latin America, and Southeast Asia are some of the most important environmental regions of the world because they hold millions of unique plants, animals, and people. However, they are being destroyed rapidly for agriculture, mining, and logging. This essay will examine the causes of this destruction and outline its effects on our lives. One of the main causes of this is logging for timber. Millions of hectares of trees are cut down every year, often illegally. The most valuable wood is taken and not replaced, and landless people move in along the new logging roads. Argumentative  An argumentative essay presents premises and conclusions regarding an issue. It presents the writer’s stand—whether s/he agrees or not. However, it should be noted that an argumentative essay is different from an opinion 26 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education  simply because an argumentative essay shows evidences and support details, while most opinions are based on beliefs and personal ideologies. Premises are reasons that support conclusions, while a conclusion is the key assertion, or claim. Sample Argumentative Paragraph Because of the pressing issues regarding global economic recession, it is high time that the government supports programs that would boost the country’s economy. We should set aside moral issues and start thinking of ways to curb to growing problems in finance. One way to deal with this is by legalizing prostitution. We all know that this is the oldest profession and legalizing this will allow more revenues. How? Well, basically, legalizing prostitution is tantamount to taxation. Each prostitute will be taxed. Hence, a portion of their profits will contribute to the needs of the nation. ENGLISH: Speech and Oral Communication General:  Use English accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately in oral discourse GRAMMAR I. The Parts of Speech The parts of speech fall into two categories: 1) the content words (also called form classes because they are best identified by form rather than by functions) which include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs; and 2) the structure words most of which do carry some meaning but which also serve to form a structural framework so that the words can fit into sentences. A. Aspect and Tense of Verb TENSE MEANING SIMPLE PRESENT (verb + -s/-es) – singular subject (verb, base form) – plural subject SIMPLE PAST (verb + -d/-ed) EXAMPLES -expresses events or situations that exist always, usually, and habitually a. It snows in Alaska b. Edbert and Kyle watch television every day -an action happened at one particular time in the past -it began and ended at a specific time in the past a. It snowed in Alaska last year. b. Edbert and Kyle watched television last night. ASPECT  PROGRESSIVE (also called continuous) 27 Downloaded by Rizjoe villacruz ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|36126921 PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education The progressive aspects give the idea that an action is in progress during a particular time. It begins before, is in progress during, and continues after another time or action. PRESENT -an action began in the past, PROGRESSIVE is in progress at the present a. Beth is sleeping right now (am/is/are + V-ing) time, and probably will continue PAST PROGRESSIVE -an action began before and (was/were + V-ing) was in progress at a b. Beth was sleeping when I particular time in the past. arrived FUTURE -an action will begin before PROGRESSIVE another action, and it will be c. Beth will be sleeping when we (will/shall + be + V- in progress at a particular arrive ing) time in the future NOTE: WILL vs. BE GOING TO  To express a PREDICTION: Use either will or be going to.  To express a PRIOR PLAN: Use only be going to.  To express WILLINGNESS: Use onlywill. e.g. 1. According to the weather report, it will be cloudy tomorrow According to the weather report, it is going to be cloudy tomorrow (Prediction) 2. Why did you buy this paint? I am going to paint my bedroom tomorrow. (Prior plan) 3. I will do it for you (Willingness)  PERFECT The perfect aspects all give the idea that one thing happened before another time or event -an action happened a. Ga