1,2,3,5,6. Introduction to Nursing Research.pptx

Introduction to Nursing Research OBJECTIVES At the end of the session participants will be able to: Define the term Research Define the term Nursing Research State the historical perspective of nursing research State reasons for conducting nursing research Discuss the importance of nursing research...

Introduction to Nursing Research OBJECTIVES At the end of the session participants will be able to: Define the term Research Define the term Nursing Research State the historical perspective of nursing research State reasons for conducting nursing research Discuss the importance of nursing research Define selected research terminologies Describe the types of Research Discuss the steps in the research process DEFINITION OF RESEARCH Research is "A diligent systematic inquiry to validate and refine existing knowledge and generate new knowledge". A Systematic inquiry that uses orderly, disciplined methods to answer questions A systematic process of collecting and logically analyzing data for a specific purpose DEFINITION OF RESEARCH A Diligent, systematic inquiry or investigation to validate and refine existing knowledge and generate new knowledge. A systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase our understanding of the phenomenon under study. A search for knowledge or any systematic investigation to establish facts. What is Nursing Research? Nursing Research Is a systematic inquiry designed to develop knowledge about issues of importance to the nursing profession, including nursing practice, education, administration, and informatics". Nurses Roles in Research Researcher Research Users Data Collectors (Research Nurse) Research Participants NURSING RESEARCH (HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE) Nursing Research is generally, believed to have started by Florence Nightingale during the Crimean War Nightingale's 18 59 initial research focused on the importance of healthy environment in promoting patient's physical and mental well-being She studied aspects of the environment such as Ventilation, cleanliness, purity of water, and diet, to determine the influence of patients' health NURSING RESEARCH (HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE) However, she is most noted for collection and analysis of soldier morbidity and mortality during the Crimean War. Studies during the 1900's-1940's mainly focused on nursing education than on staffing of hospitals, and later on to identify nursing as a profession. In the 50's more nurses acquired advanced academic preparation leading to publishing of and funding for Nursing Research. SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE Nurses have relied on several sources of knowledge to guide nursing practice Tradition- this involves the handing down of knowledge from one generation to another which give groups in society a sense of identity, belonging and pride. This has led to certain actions because "we have always done it that way" -The discipline of nursing like all other disciplines has its traditions that have been passed on through the process of socialization in nursing schools, universities and clinical areas ADVANTAGES OF TRADITION It functions as a source of knowledge Relatively efficient in that each individual is not required to start everything a new in an attempt to understand the world or certain aspects of it It facilitates communication by providing a common foundation of accepted truth Disadvantages of Tradition It may be backward, outdated or unprogressive The way how people uses it can be harmful It is sometimes rejected too quickly or clung to rigidly and as such we do not get the benefits Sources of Knowledge Authority -this is represented by people with specialized expertise in every field. Experts or authorities in a given field always provide knowledge for other people. These individuals are often times called on to make decisions about matters on which they have no direct experience Sources of Knowledge So they trust the judgements of people who are authoritative on these matters by virtue of specialized training or experience In the past nurses looked to physicians for a great deal of knowledge for their practice Sources of Knowledge Trial and error- this was used as a means of discovering knowledge. So if one approach did not work, another would be used. Sources of Knowledge Then finally when a certain approach was found to be effective, the trial-and-error process would cease. Frequently the reasons behind failures or success of a certain method was never determined. The goal was "if it works, we'll use it" Sources of Knowledge this involves the use of systematic, orderly, and objective methods of seeking information. The scientific method uses empirical data, which are data gathered through the senses. It seeks to obtain knowledge that can be generalized to other people and to other settings. The scientific method of obtaining knowledge is so far the most objective and reliable source of nursing knowledge REASONS FOR CONDUCTING NURSING RESEARCH Enhancement of Professional Practice Improvement of Health Services Academic Progress Personal Interest For decision making e.g., Recruitment, Staffing, Administration, Staff development To initiate activities that will achieve desired client behavior Curriculum Review Clinical Nursing Research Designed to generate knowledge to guide nursing practice and to improve the health and quality of life of the nurses' clients Main Areas of Interest to Nurse Researcher are; Improvement of Health Services Promotion of health practices Development of holistic nursing situations GOALS OF NURSING RESEARCH It It It It promotes evidence-based nursing practice ensures credibility of the nursing profession provides accountability for nursing practice documents the cost effectiveness of nursing care THE RESEARCH LANGUAGE SOME TERMINOLOGIES IN RESEARCH Variable Data Rigor Control Sampling Setting Research problem Problem statement CONCEPT OF A VARIABLE Measurable characteristic that varies among subjects Concepts at various levels of abstraction that are measured, manipulated or controlled in research Qualities, properties or characteristics of persons, things or situations that change or vary Research is conducted because this variance occurs! Types of Variables: Independent - presumed cause Example: Salt intake Dependent - presumed effect Example: Blood pressure reading CONCEPT OF A VARIABLE Have 2 or more properties or qualities, Age, sex, weight, height Is one variable related to another? "Is X related to Y? ,What is the effect of X on Y?" etc. DATA Pieces of information obtained in a study. Are the actual "values" of the study variables Types of Data Quantitative - numeric values Qualitative - narrative descriptions CONCEPT OF RIGOR Striving for excellence in research. Involves: Discipline Adherence to detail Strict accuracy! Uses precise measurement tools CONCEPT OF CONTROL Using "rules" to decrease error and increase probability that study findings are an accurate reflection of reality Ensure results that reflect true relationship among variables Reduction of the influence of unwanted "extraneous" variables Example: A control group of test subjects left untreated or unexposed to some procedure in order to provide a standard of comparison to the experimental group. CONCEPT OF SAMPLING Who or what do you want to study? Choosing subjects who are "representative" of the study population Random & Non-Random Sampling- when to use? CONCEPT OF SETTING Location of the study - can affect results Natural Setting: Uncontrolled, real-life situation Partially Controlled: Manipulated or modified in some way Highly Controlled: Artificial environment for sole purpose of doing research. Decreases effects of outside influences. RESEARCH PROBLEM Research Problem is a perplexing or puzzling or riddling situation that a researcher wants to address through discipline inquiry. Evaluating Research Problems significance of research problem will study contribute new information how will result benefit the population will it contribute to change in procedures or policy is the problem researchable Problem Statement articulates the nature, content and significance of a problem to be studied. Components of a Problem Statement Problem Identification: what is wrong with current situation Background: what is the context of the problem that readers need to understand What is the scope of the problem: how big is the problem, how many people are affected What can be done (proposed solution) how to make situation better Knowledge or Information gap ETHICS IN RESEARCH Balance between protecting participants vs. quest for knowledge It involves the following: informed consent or assent confidentiality and anonymity justification of procedures right to services Terminologies In Research Informed consent: the prospective subject's agreement to voluntarily participate in a study, which is reached after assimilation of essential information about the study Confidentiality: the management of private data in research so that subjects' identities are not linked with their responses Anonymity- the subject's identity cannot be linked, even by the researcher with his or her individual responses CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH Research may be classified according to the general purpose of the study. Basic Applied Research conducted for the pursuit of knowledge for knowledge sake or for the pleasure of learning CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH Basic research is concerned with generating new knowledge Research that is conducted to generate knowledge rather than to solve problems There is no direct benefit as it is a research for the sake of research. CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH Research conducted for the purpose of solving problems or improving clinical practice Research that is conducted to find a solution to an immediate practical problem It is the use of basic research or past theories, knowledge and methods for solving an existing problem. It deals with practical problems Types of Research Cross-Sectional Longitudinal Styles Of Research Descriptive - survey, historical, content analysis, qualitative Associational - correlational, causal-comparative Intervention - experimental, quasi-experimental Types of Research Methodologies Experimental – quantitative Single-Subject -quantitative Correlational – quantitative Causal-Comparative - quantitative Survey - quantitative Action – Research by Practitioners Content Analysis - qualitative Historical – qualitative Ethnographic - qualitative Types Of Research Method Types of research methods can be broadly divided into three: Quantitative Method describes, infers, and resolves problems using numbers. Emphasis is placed on the collection of numerical data, the summary of those data and the drawing of inferences from the data Types Of Research Method Qualitative Method Is based on words, feelings, emotions, sounds and other non- numerical and unquantifiable elements. It has been noted that "information is considered qualitative in nature if it cannot be analysed by means of mathematical techniques. Mixed Method Uses both quantitative and qualitative data RESEARCH DESIGN The term research design can be used in two ways Some consider research design to be the entire strategy for the study, from identification of the problem to final plans for data collection (Research Methodology) Others limit design to clearly defined structures within which the study will be implemented (Research Design) The researcher's overall plan for how the study will be conducted. It is concerned with the type of data that will be collected and the means used to collect these data Example- the researcher must decide if the study will determine causative factors, explore relationships or will only describe existing situations. TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN Qualitative Quantitative Mixed Method TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN Qualitative Phenomenological Ethnographic Ground theory Historical Case study Action research Quantitative Experimental Non-experimental Qualitative Research Research that is concerned with the subjective meaning of an experience to an individual Research that is concerned with the objectivity, tight controls over the research situation, and the ability to generalize findings Research that follows a deductive research process and involves the collection and analysis (that is numerical) data to identify statistical relations of variables It either explore, describe or explains MIXED METHOD Is one in which the researcher tends to base knowledge claims on: Data collection involves gathering both numeric (questionnaires) as well text information (interviews or focus groups) Represents both quantitative and qualitative information Employs strategies to collect data either sequentially or simultaneously STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS Selecting and defining the problem in need of investigation Reviewing the literature Selecting a theoretical or conceptual framework Formulation of Hypothesis and Research Questions Selecting a research design Data Collection Data Analysis Dissemination of the Findings SELECTING & DEFINING THE PROBLEM Researchers generally proceed from the selection of broad topic areas of interest, to the development of specific questions that are amendable to empirical inquiry. The source for generating appropriate nursing research are numerous. Some important ones are: Personal experiences, literature sources, existing theories, and previous research In developing a research problem to be studied, the nurse researcher should ideally consider its substantive dimensions: SELECTING & DEFINING THE PROBLEM Is this research question of theoretical or clinical significance The research problem is essentially the problem statement The problem statement contains what will be examined by the researcher It can be in the form of a statement or question REVIEWING THE LITERATURE Good research does not exist in a vacuum. Research findings should be an extension of previous knowledge and theory as well as a guide for the future research activity. In order for a researcher to build on existing work, he or she should understand what is already known about the topic. Thorough literature review provides a foundation upon which to base new knowledge. Purposes of Literature Review Identify what is known about the problem to avoid duplication Identify knowledge gaps by reviewing pertinent literature Sometimes precedes the delineation of the research problem Provide context within which to interpret the results Compare study results with that of earlier studies Gives information on various strategies used to research the problem: analysis procedure, instrument used How to Conduct a Literature Review Must be comprehensive, thorough, systematic and current Primary sources are preferred Formulate a Literature search strategy Document search and retrieval (how many articles) The review must be reproducible How to Write a Literature Review Have a plan on how to organize review (usu. guided by the purpose and research question) summarize and critically evaluate the overall evidence (to show current state of knowledge) The summary and conclusion of the review should show the need for the study Theoretical Framework Abstract theoretical basis for a study Aims to identify regularities in the relationships among variables. Enables researcher to interpret and link the findings of the review When research is performed within the context of a theoretical framework, it is more likely that its finding will have broad significance and utility. FORMULATING HYPOTHESIS A hypothesis is a statement of the researcher's expectations about relationships between the variables under investigation. A hypothesis, in other words, is a prediction of expected outcomes; It states the relationships that the researcher expects to find as a result of the study. Whereas the problem statement presents the question to be asked in the study, the hypothesis presents the answer to the question. FORMULATING HYPOTHESIS For example, a problem statement might be phrased as follows: Is hallucinations in mentally ill patients associated with stress factors present during medication noncompliance? This might be translated into the following hypothesis or prediction: -Non-compliant mentally ill patients will report a higher incidence of hallucinations during stressful events than compliant patients. Research Questions Some studies do not call for hypothesis. Unless the study is examining the relationship between variables, hypotheses are not required Qualitative studies do not test hypothesis. When hypotheses are not tested in a research study, research questions are posed Research Questions Research questions are more precise and specific than the broad question found in the problem statement They are statements of the specific enquiry -They are narrow and more precise Help to focus researcher on what issues need to be explained or on questions to be answered. Research Question Examples Does mentally ill patients who are non-compliant have a higher incidence of hallucinations than compliant patients? -What sources of stress are identified by patients with mental illness? RESEARCH DESIGN In the second major phase of a research project, the investigator must make a number of decisions about the methods to be used to; address the research question and must carefully plan for the actual collection of data. Each methodological decision that the researcher makes during this phase, has implications for the quality, integrity and interpretability of the results. RESEARCH DESIGN The research design is the overall plan for obtaining answers to the questions being studied and for handling some, of the difficulties encountered during the research process. The design normally specifies which of the various types of research approaches will be adopted. The design must be appropriate to test the study hypothesis or, hypotheses or answer the research question or questions Identify the population to be studied The term population refers to the aggregate or totality of all the objects, subjects, or members that conform to a specific set of specifications. For example, a researcher might specify nurses (EANS) and residence in Jamaica as the attributes of interest; the study population would then consist of all EANS who reside in Jamaica. Population to be Studied The requirement of defining a population for a research project arises from the need to specify the group to which the results of a study can be applied. It is seldom possible to study an entire population, unless it is particularly small. Research studies, as a rule, use as subjects, only a small fraction of the population, referred to as a sample. Before one selects actual subjects, it is essential to know what characteristics the sample should possess and the method of sampling TYPES OF SAMPLING METHODS Probability Simple random Stratified random Systematic random Cluster random Non-probability Convenience Snowball Quota Purposive COLLECTION OF DATA The actual collection of data normally proceeds according to a pre-established plan. The researcher's plan typically specifies procedures for the data collection (e.g., where and when the data will be gathered); For describing the study to subjects; for obtaining the necessary informed consents; and, if necessary, for training those who will be involved in the collection of the data. DATA FOR ANALYSIS The data collected in a study are rarely amendable to direct analysis. Some preliminary steps are usually necessary before the analysis can proceed. One such step is known as coding, which refers to the process of translating verbal data into categories or numeric form. Another preliminary step that is increasingly common is transferring research information from written documents, to computer files so that the data can be analyzed by computer. DATA FOR ANALYSIS. The data themselves do not answer the research questions. To answer the research questions meaningfully, the data must be processed and analyzed in some orderly, coherent fashion so that patterns and relationships can be discerned. Qualitative analysis involves the integration and synthesis of narrative, nonnumeric data. Quantitative (numeric) data are analyzed through statistical procedures. Statistical analyses cover a broad range of techniques, including some simple procedures as well as complex and sophisticated methods. INTERPRETING THE RESULTS Before the results of a study can be communicated effectively, they must be organized and interpreted in a systematic fashion. Interpretation refers to the process of making sense of the results, and examining the implications of the findings with a broader context. The process of interpretation is essentially the researcher's attempt to, explain the findings in light of what is known about previous work in the area and in light of the adequacy of the methods used in the investigation DISSEMINATION PHASE The research questions posed in the first phase of the project are answered. The researcher's job is not completed, however, and the results of the study are to be disseminated This usually takes the form of a research report that can be shared with others. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS Although nurse researchers are not always in a position to implement a plan for utilizing research findings, they can contribute to the process by including in their research reports recommendations regarding how the results of the study, could be incorporated into the practice of nursing.