Sociology Textbook Standard Twelve PDF

76.00 The coordination committee formed by G.R.No.Abhyas-2116/(pra.kra43/16)SD-4 dated 25.4.2016 has given approval to prescribe this Textbook in its meeting held on 30.01.2020 and it has been decided to implement it from the academic year 2020-2021. SOCIOLOGY...

76.00 The coordination committee formed by G.R.No.Abhyas-2116/(pra.kra43/16)SD-4 dated 25.4.2016 has given approval to prescribe this Textbook in its meeting held on 30.01.2020 and it has been decided to implement it from the academic year 2020-2021. SOCIOLOGY Standard Twelve Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, Pune. The digital textbook can be obtained through DIKSHA APP on a smartphone by using the Q.R.Code given on the title page of the Textbook. On this Q.R.Code audio-visual teaching-learning material of the relevant unit will be available. First Edition : 2020 © Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Reprint : October 2021 Research, Pune - 411 004. The Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research reserves all rights relating to the book. No part of this book should be reproduced without the written permission of the Director, Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, ‘Balbharati’, Senapati Bapat Marg, Pune 411004. Sociology Committee Cover and Illustrations Dr. Pralhad Mane, Member Shri. Devdatta Balkawade Dr. Vaishali Joshi, Member Typesetting Dr. Vaishali Diwakar, Member Dr. Amrita Nadkarni, Member DTP Section, Balbharati, Pune Dr. Vishal Jadhav, Member Dr. Anagha Tendulkar, Member Paper Dr. Vidya Avchat, Member 70 GSM Creamwove Smt. Varsha Sarode, Member Secretary Print Order N/PB/2022-23/Qty.- 3,000 Printer : Sociology Study Group M/s. Runa Graphics, Pune Dr. Ivan John Dr. Shrikant Parkhi Dr. Prakash Khetri Coordination Dr. Vyankatesh Kharat Smt. Varsha Sarode Shri. Sunil Shinde Assistant Special Officer, Dr. Hemant Sonkamble History and Civics Shri. Ronald Lewis Dr. Madanmohan Vishwakarma Shri. Dayashankar Vaidya Production Dr. Salma Aziz Shri. Adhikrao Hajare Sachchitanand Aphale Dr. Renuka Badvane Chief Production Officer Smt. Surekha Kingaonkar Prabhakar Parab, Production Officer Shri. Gunvantrao Kalgapure Shashank Kanikdale, Shri. Chandrakant Khandagle Asst. Production Officer Authors Publisher Dr. Pralhad Mane Dr. Anagha Tendulkar Vivek Uttam Gosavi, Controller Dr. Ivan John Maharashtra State Textbook Bureau, Prabhadevi, Mumbai - 400 025. (C) NATIONAL ANTHEM (D)  Preface Dear Student-friends, In today’s digital world, you must have felt the need to understand your own culture and society. Many people across the globe are struck by the diversity and plurality of Indian society and its inner strength. As learners of Sociology, you may often not have answers to questions like, “What does it mean to be Indian?” “What are the factors that influence Indian society? What are the segments of Indian society and how are they connected? How has digitalisation affected our lifestyle?” and so on. It is at such moments that we realise the need to be consciously aware of what is happening in our society, the types of changes that are taking place and the challenges that lie within and without. There are several debates on the various social processes and movements that have been taking place in India today. Have these weakened our country? Have they made us stronger than before? Understanding our pluralistic society and processes of change are extremely relevant at this juncture. The Standard XI Sociology course introduced you to various key sociological concepts. In Standard XII, the focus will be on understanding different groups within our society, various social problems, social movements and social change from the viewpoint of the Indian context. We will not only learn about diversities in Indian society but also learn to understand and respect each cultural group in its own setting, with a view to promoting national unity. Information boxes, activities provided in the textbook and the material available in the QR code should make the process of self-learning easier, interesting and it will also encourage active participation. It is hoped that this Sociology reader will facilitate a fairly comprehensive understanding of Indian society with its multiple layers and divergent cultures. We hope, you will appreciate the dynamic nature of Indian society from a refreshing and new perspective. Pune (Vivek Gosavi) Date : 21 February 2020 Director Bharatiya Saur Dinank : 2 Falgun 1941 Maharashtra State Textbook Bureau (E)  - For the Teachers - An Approach to Teaching Sociology The course in Sociology introduces learners to Indian society. As Indian citizens, it is important for us to have a comprehensive understanding of the society in which we live – its various segments, its diversity and richness of culture, as well as social problems plaguing our society and various social movements that have pressed for changes that are taking place today. Such a study can be brought alive and made more interesting by using the instructional strategies suggested below: 1. YouTube link-based discussion: The teacher must first view selected YouTube clippings, share the link on the class WhatsApp group or screen the link in class/computer lab. Follow up immediately with a discussion or written assignment. 2. Small-group Discussion: Divide your class into small groups. Give a common topic for all groups for a 3-minute reflection followed by 10 minutes of group discussion. Each group should have a group representative who will present the three most significant points to the class. The teacher should prepare a blackboard summary of learning points. 3. Peer Learning: Learners can prepare PPTs or Charts on select topics of interest, which are directly or indirectly related to the Units of the syllabi. They should then present it in the classroom. The teacher can give relevant additional information. 4. Debates: Many topics lend themselves to discussion as there are often multiple points of view. This may be organized as a formal debate in the classroom. 5. Cooperative Learning: Collaborative learning strategies can be utilized for effective, creative and fun learning experiences. Example: Think-Pair-Share, Jigsaw, Inside-Outside Circle, etc. 6. Activity Sheets/Exercises: After every Unit, learners can undertake to develop revision exercises and share with the class. These can be discussed in class and can also be used as part of the revision for the Board Exam. 7. Interviews: Small surveys (Sample size=5) can be undertaken on a specific topic and report to be written on the findings of the study. 8. Field Visit: Small-group visits to an NGO, a village or tribal area, or a slum. Make a short film on your phone or write a report on the visit. Learners must share the film/findings with the class. The activity should be followed by a discussion. At the end of each unit there are sample questions. It is not an exhaustive list. It is hoped that the teachers and learners will both develop a question bank based on the pattern prescribed by the H.S.C. Board. Teachers can encourage learners to apply their knowledge and develop skills rather than focus on rote-learning and memorisation. For this purpose, concept mapping, personal response questions and questions based on a passage have been included even in Class XII. Best wishes for making the study of Indian society an exciting and memorable experience!  Competency Statements No. UNIT COMPETENCY 1 Introduction to Describes the development of Indian society Indian society Analyses factors that influence Indian society Critically compares the influence of each period on Indian society Infers the impact of various forces on Indian society 2 Segments of Indian Describes the characteristics of tribal, rural and urban segments society of Indian society Compares the segments of Indian society Identifies and categorises the challenges of Indian society Considers solutions for problems of Indian society 3. Diversity and Unity Illustrates diversity of Indian society in Indian society Defends unity amidst diversity in Indian society Critiques divisive factors in Indian society Formulates ways to promote inclusivity and unity in Indian society 4. Processes of social Describes the processes of social change in Indian society change in India Assesses the impact of each process on Indian society Compares the challenges posed by each process of social change Proposes solutions to tackle problems that arise due to processes of social change in Indian society 5. Social Movements Explains the meaning and nature of social movement in India Describes various social movements in India Assesses the usefulness of social movements Evaluates the impact of social movements on Indian society 6. Social Problems in Demonstrates an understanding of social problems in India India Explains causal factors of social problems in India Points out consequences of social problems on Indian society Formulates solutions for social problems (G)  Contents Section I Unit 1: Introduction to Indian Society............ 1 Unit 2: Segments of Indian Society.............. 23 Unit 3: Diversity and Unity in Indian Society............................... 43 Unit 4: Processes of Social Change in India............................................... 59 Unit 5: Social Movements in India............... 68 Unit 6: Social Problems in India................... 82 Section II Passages............................................................ 101 (H)  1. Introduction to Indian Society edicts and inscriptions, court chronicles etc. 1.1 Ancient and Medieval India By artifacts, we mean, material components 1.2 Colonial Period of culture such as tools, utensils, jewellery, art, sculpture, paintings, excavated discoveries, 1.3 Post-Independent India tombs, coins, weapons etc. Then, there are human and animal bones, fossils, geographical INTRODUCTION locations which also provide clues about the time period. Through modern techniques it is As a student of Sociology, you will possible to estimate the age and other qualities agree that the focus of Sociology is to of material remnants. Based on these findings, understand the ‘what’, ‘how’ and ‘why’ of many narratives and counter-narratives have human social behaviour. Sociologists are shaped our understanding regarding the social interested in understanding the factors, life in this period. conditions, circumstances and forces that have impacted human behaviour in the past It would be impossible to summarise the and which still continue to exert influence in culture of a civilisation that is several our lives. The numerous social relationships thousand years old, and yet there is much to that we engage in influence how we behave. learn and draw from specific strands or This refers to our thinking and acting, our themes that have characterised the people of preferences, likes and dislikes, prejudices, this land over this time-frame. beliefs, practices and rituals of daily life and For the purpose of convenience, this Unit so much more. For example, if you are raised is divided into three sub-units, namely, in a household that has a customary practice (i) Ancient and Medieval India, of a morning bath before prayers are recited, (ii) Colonial Period, and then, you are very likely to conform to such a practice, and the chances are that you may (iii) Post-Independent India. propagate the same too. Again, for example, It is hoped, that you as a learner of if you have been conditioned to believe in Sociology in the 21st century, will reflect on, the superiority of a particular sex, here too, understand, appreciate, as well as critically the probability of you endorsing and examine these strands of information about transmitting such a view is high. Indian society. Naturally, to do this, one Our civilisation goes back several can’t help but go back a few thousand years thousand years when Sociology did not exist through a historical framework. By touching as a discipline. You will recall that Sociology upon specific themes and significant emerged in Europe in the mid-19th century landmarks, it should make you wonder about CE. A question that you might then ask is, myriad ways of human living, societal- “How do we know about the social life of environmental relations, practices, rituals, the people in the ancient past?” Indeed, this injustices, blunders, migration and exodus, as is a valid question. Our major sources of well as enabling factors etc. It is a mixed information about the past comes from bag and there is plenty to draw from. Our artifacts that have been discovered by knowledge of the past has shaped our present archeologists and field historians. Additionally, and indeed has a bearing on what, why and travelogues, memoirs, biographies, literature, how we think and behave. Such insights we 1 Sociology Std 12 hope, will excite you, as they could well give of time, possibly, some of the hymns came you a sense of the plural roots of our to be associated with the veneration of deities heritage, diverse past and the present, as well such as Indra, Agni, Surya, Yama etc. as the near and distant future. Indigenous tribal communities would have Harappan Vedic India Second Classical Period Medieval Period Civilisation 1500BCE- Urbanisation 200BCE-650CE 650CE-1500CE 2600BCE-1500BCE 500BCE 500BCE-200BCE ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL had their own systems of religious beliefs. 1.1 Tribal religions had no labels nor any written INDIA scriptures. Thus, most of what is known The above time line is indicative of how about tribal belief systems is based on scholars have divided the study of early references made in ancient religious texts, Indian History into different periods. Note medieval records and colonial ethnographies. that the years indicated in the above figure Anthropologists have classified tribal belief are approximations. As a learner of history, systems by various terms like animism, through your days in school, you may recall totemism etc. which you will read about in that each of these periods have been touched the following Unit. upon and discussed. So, what are we as learners of Sociology hoping to understand, through a reading of our social histories? For the purpose of this Sociology course, few strands (or themes) have been selected to understand the Ancient and Medieval Period. They include, (i) religious beliefs and practices, (ii) status of women in society, (iii) nature of education, Harappa site (iv) social life, and Anthropology : As a discipline, (v) urbanisation. Anthropology emerged during the Colonial These themes have been briefly outlined period, with the purpose of studying non- as follows: European, ‘exotic’ societies and cultures. It is classified into two broad fields, namely, (i) Religious beliefs and practices : Physical Anthropology and Social/Cultural Scholars suggest that the available discourses Anthropology. on religious practices are layered and complex. As far back as the Harappan A critique of Anthropology as being civilisation, figurines of male Gods, Mother part of a colonial project is found in the Goddess and animal deities have been found. scholarly work ‘Orientalism’ by Edward However, there is no evidence for the Said. existence of temples nor idol worship. Natural As regards the Hindu way of life, there elements such as sun, rain, water, thunder are many literary sources that shed light on and so on were venerated. With the passage beliefs and practices of the Vedic period – 2 Sociology Std 12 some are written and some are oral traditions, Against this background of Brahmin such as Vedas, Upa Vedas, Vedangas, Brahmanas, supremacy there emerged the philosophies of Aranykas, and Epics etc. The Vedic period is Vardhaman Mahavir and Gautama Buddha. usually divided into - Early Vedic Period Though both initially belonged to the Hindu- (c.1500 BCE to c.1000 BCE) and Later Vedic fold, they rebelled against excessive ritualism, Period (c.1000 BCE to c.500 BCE). One of animal sacrifices and social-based hierarchies. the reasons for this is there are significant Their teachings got established in the Indian changes that take place, about which we shall ethos, as Jainism and Buddhism. discuss as we go long. Jainism is believed to have a very ancient For Hindus, the Puranas and origin. The religion is said to have been Dharmashastras laid out a Code of Conduct revealed by 24 Tirthankaras (spiritual teachers) based on the Law of Karma (Action), which of which Vardhaman Mahavir was the last. is also known as the law of cause and effect. Similar to the Hindu Doctrine of Karma, Jain You may have heard the phrase, “As you teachings are also based on the Theory of sow, so shall you reap.” Hindus believe in a Karma. However ahimsa (non-harming) and cyclical world-view, that is, they believe that tapas (penance) are important and integral the deeds in one life determine the next life. components of the Jain way of life. Vardhaman The atman (soul) is trapped in the bondage Mahavir did not speak of God in his teachings, of birth and rebirth, until it can attain moksha but he emphasised the state of nirvana. His (salvation). The four aims of Hindu life teachings were in the language of the common (Purusharthas) are: people, namely, Ardhamagadhi. DHARMA ARTHA Be aware! l doing one’s duties by l refers to acquisition Of the Sola Sati (i.e. 16 virtuous following the path of of wealth through the righeousness, without path of righteousness women) in Jainism, five are shared with the expectation of a through hard work Hinduism, namely, Draupadi, Kausalya, reward Sita, Kunti and Damayanti. KAMA MOKSHA If, the Hindu system of belief gave l sensuous pleasure or l ultimate goal of importance to the performance of sacrifices sexual union through salvation from the the path of cycle of birth and and Sanskritic rituals, Jainism advocated an righteousness rebirth austere and strict lifestyle based on penance. Buddha, with his teachings seems to Scholars suggest that society in the Early advocate the middle path based on the Four Vedic period was less rigid with respect to Noble Truths and the Eight-fold Path. occupation-based divisions. Over a period of time however, the rigidification of varnas Like Jainism, the teachings of Gautama (discussed later) into a fixed, closed system Buddha did not make reference to the concept of stratification emerged. This came to be of God. Also, the sacred literature (Tripitkas) called jati (assigned by birth). The Jati system were written in the language of the common was anchored in Brahminism that suggested people, namely, Pali. Buddha made that hierarchy was subsequently based on the monasticism an inseparable part of his creed. principle of “purity and pollution”. This The function of monasticism was to provide meant strict endogamy, excessive ritualism suitable conditions for personal and societal and the emergence of discrete boundaries of development. inclusion and exclusion. 3 Sociology Std 12  even beyond the boundaries of India because Be aware! : As schools of Indian of the patronage of the Mauryan emperor, philosophy, it is pertinent to note that Ashoka. As a missionary religion, Buddhism both, Jainism and Buddhism are spread to foreign countries like Tibet, China, described as non-theistic, unlike other Japan, Mongolia, Burma, Java, Sumatra and Indian philosophical schools and sects Sri Lanka. Even today, India is considered a which are theistic, with the exception of holy place and the source of their religion Charvaka and Ajivika by these countries. Jain and Buddhist Sanghas Charvaka and Ajivika are also (schools) for religious learning were considered to be schools of Indian established people who chose the ascetic way philosophy. While Charvaka is rooted in of life (as nuns and monks). a non-theistic and materialistic Buddhism gave great importance to moral philosophy, the Ajivika school of thought upliftment of human beings and directed is rooted in fatalism and asceticism. people to lead moral lives. It insisted on virtues like charity, self-sacrifice, control over passions and non-injury in thought and action. These virtues are also advocated in the Do you know? Upanishads and also widely practiced through the Buddhist way of life. The Jataka Tales (300 BCE - 400 CE) Over a period of time Jainism and These are a voluminous body of Buddhism also split into sects. The smaller literature indigenous to India. They are following invariably were those who adhered concerned with the previous births of more strictly to the teachings of the leaders. Gautama Buddha in both, human and The larger sect were people whose practices animal form. The future Buddha may of the teachings were made more practical appear as a King, an outcaste, a God, an and doable. Jain sects include – Digambaras elephant etc. Whatever form he takes, the (sky clad) and Shvetambaras (white clad) Buddha exhibits some virtue and moral whereas Buddhist sects include – Hinayana that the tale thereby inculcates. (Lesser Vehicle) and Mahayana (Greater In these tales, there are numerous vehicle), Vajarayan which comes much later characters who interact and get into trouble in the 8th century CE. whereupon the Buddha intervenes and resolves their problems. There is an Activity 1 inherent reference to naturism in these Find out about the Eight-Fold Path of tales. Buddhism. Following the nirvana of Mahavir and Thus, Jainism and Buddhism are Buddha, the spread of their teachings also perceived as “protest religions”. Both these diminished. For a period of about twelve religious traditions opened their doors to all hundred years there was no emergence of sections of society. The right to salvation newer and impactful religions. Historian R. was no longer limited in a particular stratum S. Sharma holds that there was a “period of of society. Understandably, Buddhism with flux leading to a continuous process of its less rigid rules and regulations in fragmentation and decentralization” during comparison to Jainism was embraced by this period. many; Buddhism thus spread far and wide 4 Sociology Std 12  We will now pick up the strand of which it is stated that the supreme creator religious practices and beliefs that were is Ahura Mazda, from whom Asha significant during the Medieval Period (c. (cosmic order) originates. Fire and clean 650 CE – c. 1500 CE), which saw several water are agents of ritual purity. Fire religions come to India from outside. These temples are their place of worship. The include Judaism, Christianity, Islam and much Holy Flame was brought by priests from later Zoroastrianism. Persia to Navsari in Gujarat (c. 9th The Sangham Period (6th century BCE century CE). to 3 century CE) is the period of history of rd While maintaining their strong sense ancient peninsular India (which approximates of identity and culture, despite their the present-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala diminishing numerical strength, Parsis States). It is named after the famous Sangham have contributed in all walks of life. academies of poets and scholars centered in Personalities like Dadabhai Naoroji, the city of Madurai. Religion played a milder Pherozeshah Mehta, Field Marshall Sam role during the Sangham Age. Both ritualistic Maneckshaw, Zubin Mehta are some of and supplicatory aspects of religion were the significant Parsis. Tata, Godrej and practiced by the Sangham people. Rituals Wadia are important names in the were related to animism and other forms of building of modern industry in India. Dr. deity worship. Tree, stone, water, animals, Homi Bhabha was instrumental in stars and planets were worshipped. The Tamils making India a nuclear power. The of the Sangham Age were aware of certain works of top lawyers from the Parsi spiritual and philosophical truths. They community like Nani Palkiwala, Soli believed that life is distinct from body. While Sorabji and Fali Nariman continue to life can function independently of the body, enlighten civil society. the latter cannot, when divorced from life. Their entire philosophy of ancestral worship, reincarnation etc., was related to death and People of Jewish faith are believed to be the afterlife. one of the early foreign religions to come to India. They came for the Hebrew King The roots of Zoroastrianism is found in Solomon’s merchants for the purpose of the Middle East region. Persecution of the trade. Conversions of people in Kochi to people of this faith brought them to the Judaism led to the identity of Kochi Jews. Western coast of India, near present-day Till today, the Jewish Synagogue is found in Gujarat, into which they culturally assimilated. Fort Kochi. Zoroastrianism is the only outside religious community that still practices endogamy; it did not permit proselytisation i.e. conversions into their faith. Also, entry into their Fire temples is restricted to members of the community. Zoroastrianism : It is one of the world’s oldest and continuously practiced religion. It is centered on a dualistic cosmology of good and evil (Heaven and Hell). Their sacred scripture is Avesta in Jewish Synagogue, Kochi 5 Sociology Std 12  The number of Jews have dwindled. In Earth determines if they will go to Heaven. Mumbai too, there is a small community of The essential foundation of the Christian Bene Israel Jews and it is believed that some faith is the principle of love and all Christians tribes in Mizoram too have Jewish identity. believe in the Death and Resurrection of Jewish people follow the Torah (which includes Jesus Christ, their Saviour. The impact of the Books of the Old Testament of the Bible). Christianity is especially notable during the Judaism is a monotheistic religion. They believe Colonial period. that the Messiah (Saviour) is yet to come. The Holy Sabbath is a sacred observance of Jews. You will recall that the Jewish people were the most persecuted community in human history. You should know! The Holocaust : Since 1945, the word ‘holocaust’ has taken on a new and gruesome meaning. It was used to refer to the genocide (i.e. mass murder) of around 6 million European Jews, other communities and groups including gypsies, homosexuals, Cross founded by St. Thomas Syro-Malabar socialists, communists among some others. Church at Palayoor This was carried out by the German Nazi Even though Islam first came to India Regime in the Second World War. The total in the 8th century CE, the impact and death toll was estimated to be around 11 influence of the religion is seen only much million. later. Like Judaism and Christianity, Islam Find out more about the Concentration also preaches monotheism and the faith Camps that were spread across Europe centres on the Holy Quran. Muslims believe during World War II. in the Five Pillars of Faith. It guides their From 1948-1951, 1,36,000 Jewish beliefs and behaviour. displaced persons immigrated to Israel. Others re-settled in United States and other nations outside Europe. For centuries, they did not have a land of their own, but lived on many continents. It is only in the 20th century that they have come to identify with a territory of their own, Israel, after years of political struggle. It is in the 1st century CE that Saint During the Medieval period, Islamic Thomas, an Apostle of Jesus Christ, brought teachings spread far and wide. Several rulers Christianity to the shores of Malabar in made special efforts to propagate the faith. The South India. Followers of Christ came to be Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic Empire that called Christians. The local people who ruled a large part of India for almost 320 years converted to Christianity then, are called the (1206 CE - 1526 CE) over Five Dynasties. Syrian Christians. Christianity is a Mamluk monotheistic faith and like Judaism, it holds Dynasty Khilji Tughlaq Sayyid Lodi Dynasty Dynasty Dynasty Dynasty a linear view of life, that means, people or Slave Dynasty believe that they have one life; their life on 6 Sociology Std 12  During the rule of Akbar, he started a render courtesy, care and hospitality to all religion based on ethical rationalism, called visitors. Din-i-Ilahi. It was a synthesis of all religions and was based on Akbar’s philosophy of universal toleration. It was a system without a priesthood, no rituals, beliefs nor books. It was inspired by the teachings contained in different sacred texts. Social interaction of local people with Christians, Muslims and Jews led to conversions. Missionaries were especially known for their educational and social service to all people, irrespective of one’s identity – sex, caste, creed, community etc. Langar Sikhism emerged in the late 15th century CE and was founded by Guru Nanak (1469 The Bhakti movement emerged with the CE - 1539 CE). Like Hinduism, Jainism and need to bring religious reform in Hinduism Buddhism, Sikhism too preached the Karma during the medieval period. It rejected the theory. Sikhism flourished in Punjab (North caste system. It criticised excessive ritualism India) and was largely contained there. It and advocated simplicity in worship. It rejected caste-based social hierarchy. It professed that all human beings were equal supported equality of all persons for religious in the eyes of God. The focus was on worship and other fields of life. The teachings devotional singing and repetition of his name of the ten Gurus constitute the faith of Sikhs (namasmaran). Sufism also preached the unity and their sacred literature is the ‘Guru Granth of humanity and believed in the equality of Sahib’. all human beings in the eyes of God. Some important exponents of this are Kabir, Rahim and Guru Nanak. Kabir and Rahim denounced external observances of religion such as rituals, superstitious practices, idolatry and pilgrimages. Guru Nanak decried the caste system, ritualism and idol worship. Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra : This movement began in the 13th century CE with Dnyaneshwar. The centre of this movement is located at the temple of 5 K’s of Sikhism (Panj Kakkar) Vithoba at Pandarpur. Namdev was his Langar is the Punjabi term for community contemporary kitchen which was institutionalised by the (1270-1350) who founding Guru during the 16th century CE. It criticised fasts, is a unique symbol of charity and equality, pilgrimages and designed to provide a free vegetarian meal to all other external all people irrespective of caste, creed, age, forms of religious gender or social status. All Sikh gurdwaras practice. operate langars where volunteers (sevadars) 7 Sociology Std 12  (ii) Status of women in Indian society so, child marriage. Marriage now became the : Religious scriptures as well as historical only sacrament (samskar) permissible for women. studies indicate that Indian women enjoyed a You will observe that even though comparatively high status during the early women had a relatively better status in the Vedic period. This is not to be understood as Early Vedic period, when compared to the if women enjoyed an equal status with men. Later Vedic period, as regards social and Patriarchal value systems were in operation legal aspects, they did not have equal rights then and they still continue to this day. with their male counterparts. They did not Women during the Early Vedic period possess the right to property. The Later Vedic had access to Vedic education; they were period witnessed a decline in the status of entitled to the upanayana (thread) ceremony women in society. Women were now restricted which enabled them entry into the Gurukul to household duties and were barred from system of education. The Rig Veda renders attending social assemblies. They were the highest status to qualified women. reduced to a subordinate status in the Educated women were divided into two household. The family system continued to be categories: Sadyavadhu – those who pursued patriarchal and descent was patrilineal. Hence their education just until they were married women were more rigidly subjected to the and Brahmavadinis – those who never married three obediences, viz. father (before marriage), and continued studying and imparting husband (after marriage) and son (after the education throughout their lives. Vedas and husband’s death). The birth of a daughter Vedangas were taught to women too, but later began to be looked down upon and there is became limited to religious songs and poems evidence to suggest the beginning of the necessary for rituals. Some notable Vedic and practice of dowry. The Gautam-Dharma Sutra Upanishadic women scholars were Apala, advocated that girls should be married off Indrani, Ghosha, Lopamudra, Gargi and before attaining puberty so as to ensure purity Maitreyi. and chastity. Women were considered as useful and Activity 2 productive members of society. They could participate in social assemblies (vidath). They Discuss whether there are similarities were also permitted to choose their life between the status of women in the Later partners for marriage. Marriage was considered Vedic period and modern Indian women. a sacrament and was irrevocable, though not To what extent are there changes? Do compulsory. The main form of marriage was some beliefs and practices still continue in monogamy. There is mention of Anuloma and 21st century India? Pratiloma marriage in the Upanishads. In the Later Vedic period, the caste Jainism, being a religion of religious system and Brahminic supremacy became equality, is devoted to recognising the rights entrenched. Caste groups became rigid with of all living creatures. Thus, it accepts that the passage of time. The varna system now women are able to play a role on the path turned into an oppressive Jati (caste) system. to liberation. The views of the two sects’ viz. In all this, women became doubly oppressed. Digambara and Shvetambara differ on this Since education for girls was stopped, so was issue. The Shvetambara sect acknowledges the sacrament of upanayana (thread ceremony) that many distinguished women played which initiated them into the Gurukul. It was important roles. The ‘Sola Sati’ (16 virtuous replaced with marriage (‘vivaha’) and more women) highlight exemplary religious qualities 8 Sociology Std 12 which are emulated as role models by Jain text, Buddha states his positive view that the women. However, in the monasteries for birth of a daughter should not be a matter women, there are codes of conduct for nuns for worry nor despair. that are far more difficult than those laid out The Buddha has emphasised the fruitful for monks. At the same time, Mothers of role that women can play in society. In family Tirthankaras have been revered and worshipped affairs, the wife was expected to be a for fulfillment of desires like progeny, wealth substitute for the husband if he was indisposed. and health. Several Jain nuns have played a In fact, she was expected to acquaint herself very active part in the abolition of sati with his business or trade, so she would want practice, abolition of daasi system of slavery to be in a position to manage his affairs in of women and in the prohibition of animal his absence. Buddha recognised the talents of sacrifices. Several Jain nuns and exemplary women and gave them their responsibilities women are highly respected and praised in in the Bhikkuni Sangha. Renowned Bhikkunis the literary and oral tradition. were Dhammadinna, Khema and Uppalavanna. Digambara Jains believe that the principle The status of women deteriorated even of nudity is an essential element in the path further in Medieval India. Invasions from the to liberation. Vardhaman Mahavir himself had Central Asian region along with zealous advocated this. Brahmanical iron laws were the main cause Gautama Buddha permitted women to for this degradation. Freedom of women was join his monastic community and to fully curtailed, knowledge of the scriptures and participate in it. The various schools and literacy was denied to them and her status traditions in Buddhism hold differing views was reduced to being dependent on men regarding the possibilities of women’s spiritual throughout her lifetime. Only women from achievements. Buddhist doctrines do not upper castes and aristocracy were given differentiate between women and men since education in private. everyone, regardless of gender, status or age, Widow remarriage which was permitted is subject to old age, illness and mortality; thus, in the Vedic period, came to be considered suffering and impermanence applies to all. taboo. Women continued to be excluded from family inheritances. Practices of child marriage, sati, purdah system and Devadasi system made women the objects of exploitation. The patriarchal joint family, the customs of polygamy and early marriage – all contributed to smothering the free development and growth of women. (iii) Nature of Education : In the Harappan civilisation, inscriptions on seals indicate that the Harappan people were literate. There are inscriptions on household Buddhist Bhikkhunies objects which point out that common people Though early Buddhist texts state that were literate. women can gain enlightenment, it is clearly During the Early Vedic period the content stated in the Vinaya Pitaka that there could of education was based on sacred literature never be a female Buddha. But women were which were written in Sanskrit – which was ordained as Bhikkhu into the Sangha. In this not the language of the masses. The language 9 Sociology Std 12 of teaching was also Sanskrit. The Yajur Veda now preached by the Upanishads, though it commands education for all classes, women was also known to the Rig Veda. It is to be notwithstanding. The Atharva Veda states that noted that by the time of the Upanishads (c. “all classes have an equal right to study the 6th century BCE), the spread of asceticism Veda”. To enter Vedic Schools, it was a was largely through the teachings of ascetics prerequisite for students of the first three themselves and new teachings spread through Varnas to perform the Upanayana (thread) debates and discussions. In eastern parts of ceremony and they had to observe India there was the rise of free speculation Brahmacharya for as long as they lived at the and the emergence of humanitarian and school to study the Vedas. There was an oral theistic movements, which in turn led to new tradition of imparting knowledge, which was centres of spiritual leadership – the ascetics through rote-learning. Enunciation and and wanderers (Sramanas or Parivrayakas). pronunciation was an integral part of the oral They now rejected the authority of the Vedas tradition of learning. The aim of education and of Vedic priests, though they continued was to sharpen the intellect as well as for to believe the doctrine of transmigration and character formation. Most scholars hold the the law of deeds. They frowned upon blood view that the art of writing was unknown sacrifices which became a part of Brahminic during this period. Value was attached to ritual. Utmost importance was given to the being truthful, carrying out one’s duties practice of ahimsa or non-injury of living (dharma), devotion to the guru and to one’s beings. As you would have inferred, we are parents, hospitality, faith and generosity. The referring now to the wandering teachers – Kshatriyas learnt the art of warfare and Vardhamana Mahavir and Gautama Buddha. administration. Vaishyas studied trade and After Mahavir became a Kevalin commerce and Shudras learnt agriculture and (omniscient), a Jina (conquerer) and Mahavir animal husbandry. The Brahmanas probably (great hero), he now became part of the sect stayed in the school until they attained called Nirgranthas, which came to be referred mastery of the four Vedas. There were various to as Jainas (following of Jina). Mahavir was centres of learning. In this ‘Age of the four a religious teacher for three decades. There Vedas’, knowledge was created, preserved were differences in the preachings of Mahavira and transmitted to the subsequent generations and Buddha. Buddha borrowed and adapted through Rishis, sages, seers. They were known from the popular beliefs of the region. Buddha as Brahmanas – the possessors of Brahman chaityas were considered to be the abodes of (supreme knowledge). earth-spirits and genii who, for the simple It is observed that during the Later Vedic folk of the time, were far more accessible period, women were denied access to and less expensive to worship. Unorthodox upanayana ceremony, which then denied them holy men set up homes around the chaityas access to learning. There was emphasis on and in doing so, they could obtain alms from the institution of sacrifice and this led to the worshippers of the chaityas. The Buddha growth of large amounts of literature related respected these local shrines and encouraged to sacrifice. The first millennium CE saw the his lay followers to do the same. The Buddhist rise of States and increasing instability system of education was conducted through resulting from territorial expansion. There Buddhist monasteries (viharas). The centre of was disintegration of tribal units and chieftains the Buddhist system of learning revolved were overthrown. In this situation of seeming around the Order (Sangh) of monks (bhikkus); hopelessness emerges asceticism as a means later Buddha permitted the entry of women for salvation from worldly life, which was as nuns (bhikkunis). Admission into the Order 10 Sociology Std 12 of monks (bhikkus); later Buddha permitted read and write, it would have been impossible the entry of women as nuns (bhikkunis). to study the Quran, the Hadith and other Admission into the Order meant loss of one’s sciences. The Prophet Mohammed exhorts all caste and identity, into an organisation people of faith to acquire knowledge. characterised by equality and fraternity. However, unlike the previous systems of Religious instruction was imparted in the learning, there was no requirement for the viharas. rigour associated with Vedic schools nor Like the Brahmanical system of renunciation of the world. The Islamic system education, there was a special relationship of education is open to all followers of the between the learner and teacher; the student faith irrespective of one’s status. had to live with the teacher (Upajjhaya or Education was imparted in three ways : Acharya) and serve him. There was clear (i) Maktab (for elementary education), segregation of monks and nuns within the (ii) Madrasa (for higher learning and Order. In the Order of Nuns, some became generally attached to a mosque), and eminent teachers or Theris. Among the Order of Nuns, avenues for education and social (iii) Khanqah (theological training). service emerged. The Buddha’s teachings Maktabs had an age of admission form the basis of what we may call humanism around four years, which was marked by a today. You may recall studying about the rite of entry. Early training focused on the famous and renowned ancient universities of R’s of learning - reading, recitation, writing Nalanda and Takshashila. Both these and arithmetic. Several hours were spent on universities no longer exist. However, the developing the art of writing. The study of tradition of residing and studying at the Quran would start from around age monasteries continues to this day. The history seven. of the Buddhist system of education is Madrasas included comprehensive study practically the history of the Buddhist Viharas of the Quran and its commentary by established or Order or Sangha. Just as Vedic culture theologians alongside practical subjects like centered on sacrifices, Buddhist education agriculture, accountancy, astrology, astronomy, and learning revolved around monasteries. history, geography, mathematics, Islamic law Mention of this is found in the travellogues and jurisprudence and statecraft (i.e. the art of Hiuen Tsang. of administration) and languages such as Education in the Sangham period was a Arabic and Persian (which were languages widespread social activity. It was a secular also taught elsewhere in the contemporary factor and not the priviledge of any one Islamic world). Noted scholar Abul Fazl community. Works on grammar, poetry, informs us that Akbar enabled the study of mathematics, astronomy and fine arts (music, Sanskrit and Upanishads for Hindu students dance, drama, painting, sculpture) and who wished to learn at the Madrasa. We can architecture were the specialisations. infer that the education was based upon the The decline of Buddhist Viharas is political, social and economic needs of the significant as it marked the decline of an community at large. Students had the freedom organised system of education. It also marked to choose subjects according to one’s interests the beginning of the middle ages, with the and their aims in life. Post-madrasa training advent of Islam in India. could be followed up by engaging the services of a learned teacher (for example, Abdul Education during the medieval period is Qadir Badaoni, Abul Fazl, Faizi). Madrasas centered on the Quran. Without the ability to provided facilities for residence for both, 11 Sociology Std 12  Khanqahs can be likened to monasteries and Persian. Education, however, was made of Medieval Europe and they were often available to only a small section of people linked to the tombs of celebrated, much loved e.g. the elite and the ulema, the Brahmins, and respected saints. These came to be and a few upper caste groups. The education regarded as Dargahs. of girls was perceived as being a personal matter to be decided by their fathers or guardians. Women from the Muslim nobility were permitted to receive education in their homes at the hands of teachers who were presented with expensive gifts. Since, only a relatively small number of people belonged to the upper strata of society, it is reasonable to assume that the education of girls and women during the Medieval period was bleak. (iv) Social life : Harappan civilisation was known for its well-planned towns, Indo-Islamic Art covered drainage system, its granary which was used for storing and trading surplus Activity 3 grain. The Great Bath is one indicator of the Find out more about the impact of collective life of the people. Excavations Muslim rule on the following : indicate the existence of people who were Painting Architecture Music probably horizontally divided on the basis of skills, without a rigid hierarchical structure. Present your findings in class. Thus, there were peasants, artisans, traders, fishermen, priests, administrators, artists, Art : It is interesting to note that various weavers etc. arts and crafts such as music, painting, Sangham literature makes reference to medicine, astronomy, geography, geometry tribes and traditional castes. This is indicative and literature had contributed towards the of their coexistence. Though the Brahmins Golden Age of the Guptas. Many of these constituted a numerical minority, they played skills got imparted through apprenticeship. an important role in the development of The arts were especially boosted by the Tamilian culture. Sangham priests though not generosity of donors. In the course of time, dominating were in the process of assuming the arts themselves came to be influenced by advisory and supervisory powers. The Bards the tastes, ideas and interests of the patrons, (nomadic ballad singers) were a special class. namely, Muslim rulers in Medieval India. Vedars (hunter and highway robbers) were During the Medieval Period education much feared. The Marrakudi was a separate suffered a setback due to changed political warrior section who had their own traditions circumstances. Muslim rulers at the imperial and beliefs. Then, there were fishermen, salt capitals at Delhi and Agra did not do manufacturers, weavers, agriculturalists, anything remarkable for the promotion of shepherds and cowherds who were also education of women. Educational work was important. carried out in the villages and towns by The Varna System during Vedic period private individuals and institutions. The referred to the social order or class of people. mediums of instruction were Sanskrit, Arabic 12 Sociology Std 12 important. Mela Festival of the Sadhus. Sadhus are The Varna System during Vedic period people who choose the path of asceticism. referred to the social order or class of people. The Classical Period (i.e. the period of There was flexibility and fluidity with respect the Gupta Dynasty) believed to be the to occupation. It was only towards the end ‘Golden Age’, is when Indian society grew of the Vedic period that Varna turned into a and thrived, setting the foundations in arts, rigid jati (caste) hierarchy based on the science, politics, religion, philosophy and ideology of ‘purity and pollution’. Notions of economics that define Indian culture to this purity and pollution continue to be followed day. This period consists of the time when in everyday practices such as food and water India was governed by the powerful Gupta intake, dressing, occupation, worship, social Empire. When Chandragupta I ascended the interactions, travel etc. throne, he built a mighty army and began consolidating all the warring cities under his BRAHMIN - priests, rule. The Gupta Empire then grew to control teachers, intellectuals much of the Indian subcontinent. It became a global trade centre and an epicentre of KSHATRIYA - rulers and artistic and intellectual achievement. This warriors was the time when Aryabhatta wrote on VAISHYA - merchants geometry, trigonometry and cosmology and traders, farmers calculated the length of the year at 365.358 days. He also predicted that the earth was a SHUDRA - Menial work sphere. Varahamihira wrote on astronomy and astrology. Dhanvantri wrote on medicine. The first three varnas began to call Education and literacy were priorities of the themselves the upper varnas. They became Gupta civilisation. Everybody including the the ‘twice-born’ (dvija) because they were non-nobility had an equal opportunity for entitled to the initiation ceremony (upanayana). education. Ashramvyavastha was prescribed for Eventually, however, the empire grew so the so-called twice-born castes. This referred large that it became unwieldy and difficult to the four stages in the life of a Hindu. to manage. The smaller kingdoms broke They were, away. This allowed the Huns of Central Asia to invade and defeat the Gupta dynasty Brahmacharyashram Grihasthashram Vanaprasthashram Sanyasashram around 550 CE and finally the classical (Studenthood, single (hermithood and status and celibacy) (Householder) retirement) (renunciation) period declined by 650 CE. Many texts (Nitishastras and Hindu teachings showed its followers, Dharmashastras) were written during period four paths to realise God and attain Moksha. of ‘second urbanisation’, (see page 15) which Each path is called a Marg. They were Jnana elaborated on socio-political laws. The Marg (Path of Knowledge), Bhatki Marg punishments, however, varied according to (Path of Devotion), Raja Marg (Path of the jati of the accused. Caste hierarchy Meditation), Karma (Path of Action). Even deepened and the Shudras were assigned the in present times, Hindus through their daily status of mere service providers, namely, life tend to follow one or more paths prescribed, artisans, agricultural labourers and slaves to but with more flexibility. You may have read the ‘dvija castes’. Kinship ties continued to about or seen YouTube videos of the Kumbh be strong, but patriarchal control of the 13 Sociology Std 12  and their relatives, Hindu and Muslim You should know! Chieftains), priests (Ulemas and Brahmin), towns people (urban wealthy merchants, Great and Little Traditions traders and artisans), and peasants (rural This is a conception of civilisations agriculturalists who paid taxes to the State). drawn up by two social anthropologists During this period also, a rigid caste system - Milton Singer and Robert Redfield who was followed. have conducted field work in North India. Scholars suggest that it was due to the Civilisations were conceived by them systematic efforts of Emperor Akbar that gave in cultural terms as co-existing and India a strong and stable political interdependent systems. They were called: administration. There were rulers who (i) Great Traditions : an overarching extended their empires far and wide; some dominant ideology that includes were benevolent rulers and others were idea systems like science, tyrants. There were some peaceful empires philosophy, fine arts, and critical and others filled with fear and bloodshed. The and reflexive ideas that more or Medieval Period is often stated to be the less cover a large territory. (e.g. darkest period in the history of India, which Hindustani and Carnatic Music) is also true of Europe. However, as sociologists, (ii) Little Traditions : which include it is necessary for us to understand that, folk art, folklore and the religious through this, there emerged several changes traditions of the local people. (e.g. that transformed Indian society also. Lavani, Lezim, Powada (ballad) Performing arts, architecture and sculpture of Maharashtra, Kalaripayattu of flourished alongside internal and foreign trade, Kerala.) and commerce. The establishment of Din-I- Ilahi by Akbar was a new religion based on ethical rationalism. The Medieval Period of India is one of Towards the 19th century CE there numerous conquests. Early Muslim invaders emerged a widening gap between liberals and came to India to take advantage of India’s orthodox groups from various faiths. This material resources. During the Delhi Sultanate, polarisation is hardly surprising as it seems society experienced a synthesis of Indian and to be a recurring pattern among all religious Islamic culture. Thus, Indo-Islamic groups even in 21st century India. architecture, use of mechanical technology (v) Urbanisation : Contrary to the and use of Hindi-Urdu language (Hindustani) popularly held view that urbanisation is the was seen. Amir Khusro, who lived in the 13th result of industrial development, it is century used a form of Hindustani, which he interesting to note that archeological evidence called Hindavi, which was the language of from the Harappan civilisation suggest that the period. At the same time, the Delhi Harappa was indeed a well-planned town Sultanate was also responsible for large scale with a ‘way of life’ that can be referred to destruction and desecration of temples – as ‘first urbanisation’. Archeological evidence Hindu, Jain and Buddhist, in the Indian sub- suggests that the city life of the people of continent. Harappa was well-developed. Some houses The Delhi Sultanate was a feudal had wells and bathrooms. The city had a hierarchy that was broadly divided into four covered drainage system and a well-developed major groups – aristocrats or nobles (Sultans drainage system underground. The social 14 Sociology Std 12 conditions were well-advanced like other circumstances that influenced people’s thinking contemporary civilisations of Mesopotamia and behaviour. As a learner in modern India, and Egypt. There are recorded references to critically look at beliefs, practices, traditions, trade and commerce of the Harappan customs, patterns of behaviour that continue civilisation in Sumerian documents. to be followed even today. Surely, this is the Towards the end of the Later Vedic result of socialisation and cultural transmission period, after the pastoral and nomadic Indo- from one generation to the next. It is Aryans spread from Punjab to the Gangetic important for us in the present times to ask Plain; they deforested large areas of land to questions about why practices or customs or pave way for agriculture. The period c.500 beliefs continue. There is certainly no BCE to c.200 BCE is considered the period homogeneity that characterises the whole of of ‘second urbanisation’ which brought a a complex and composite culture. There are large-scale beginning of town life in the inherent contradictions and conflicting ideas. middle Gangetic basin. Magadha had gained This is the beauty of plurality and complexities prominence and formed the base of the of social life. There is no one way to Mauryan Empire. This was a distinct cultural understand this social reality, frightening as area, with new States arising after 500 BCE. that may sound. A world-view that comprehends historical disruptions and The small Indo-Aryan chieftaincies called complexities in multi-layered realities can be Janapadas were consolidated into larger states called the “sociological imagination”. called Mahajanpadas. Sixteen monarchies and “republics” known as Mahajanpadas, stretched Check your progress across the Indo-Gangetic Plain from modern 1. What was the nature of education day Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharashtra. during the Early Vedic period? This period saw the second major rise of 2. State two indicators of the declining urbanism in India after the Harappan status of women during the Later civilisation. Evidence for it comes through Vedic period. archaeological excavations, especially those of 3. Mention any two characteristics of the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) the Indian society in Medieval culture. Jain, Buddhist and Sutra literature are period. among the important sources of information about cities and socio-political life of this 1.2 COLONIAL PERIOD period. The colonial period in India is generally The beginning of coinage (metallic coins) referred to as the age of European conquest started in this period. These cities became the in this region. The Portuguese entered India centres of administration as well as of trade for trade in the 16th century CE. and commerce. This led to the emergence of city-based artisan and merchant guilds. A By the early 17th century CE, the Dutch network of routes for internal and distant and British also landed on our shore. The trade developed in both eastern and western French too came to India but their presence regions. The position of ‘king’ gained much is felt especially in Puducherry (Pondicherry) strength and respect. The king was assisted in South India. by ministers and officials, who often came The British continued to rule India till from the Brahmin and Kshatriya caste. the 20th century. The spread of Christianity in The above themes will give you some the Anglican tradition (Church of England) idea of specific factors and forces, or during the British presence in India is evident. 15 Sociology Std 12 in South India. fading out of cultural elements), (ii) additive The British continued to rule India till changes (i.e. new cultural additions), (iii) the 20th century. The spread of Christianity supportive changes (i.e. changes that support in the Anglican tradition (Church of England) existing cultural traits) and (iv) synthetic during the British presence in India is evident. changes (i.e. the synthesis of old and new culture). One cannot deny the fact that several systems were set in place under British rule (3) Administration : The British set in in India. Some of the social reforms were place new systems of administration. They also possible because of British policies. started the system of Services like the Economic Service, Education Service, Revenue Let us look at some consequences of Service and Administrative Service. It was colonialism in India. the English-educated Indians who entered the (1) Education : The British set up a administrative services to assist the British system of education which had far reaching rulers in governing the land and its people. impact on Indian society. The medium of A new judiciary system was created, which instruction in the high school now became took into consideration the earlier legal English. It became the common language of traditions of the Indian communities. However, communication among the learned people. its implementation was carried out on a Schools and colleges were open to all secular basis; each individual judged on an individuals, irrespective of caste, creed, equal basis, irrespective of one’s caste and gender etc. In 1857, the Universities of creed. The authority of feudal lords and Calcutta (Kolkata), Bombay (Mumbai) and zamindars was abolished; effecting gradual Madras (Chennai) were established. The permeation of democratic values into the content of education was not religion-oriented. Indian psyche and society. The Indian It was secular – which included subjects like Councils Act, The Indian High Court Act Mathematics, Science, Philosophy, Sociology, and The Indian Civil Service Act of 1861 History etc. This led to the rise of a new - all led to major changes in the Executive, class of intelligentsia, who were of Indian Legislative and Judicial administration of origin but trained in “Western” values, India. customs and practices. Some of them played a significant role in the reform movements. New values like rationality, equality, social justice, secular approach and individualism gained firmer ground. (2) Culture : Many of the educated elite took to the lifestyle of the British with respect to food habits, dressing, customs, mannerisms, attitudes, beliefs, language, sports and entertainment etc. Eminent Indian sociologist, M. N. Srinivas referred to this Bombay High Court process of imitation of the British, as (4) Economy : The economic system ‘westernization’. The impact of Western got transformed by industrial growth and its culture has been classified into four types by twin process of urbanisation. Caste-based Alatas. They are (i) eliminative changes (i.e. skills and occupations and social relationships were gradually changing due to the impact 16 Sociology Std 12 of a changing economy and the rise of many social and religious reform movements. factories. The emergence of economic and (See box below) educated classes were on the rise. Traditional barriers were gradually dropped. New Movements of Founder Revenue systems were started by the British Social Reforms in different parts of India which affected the Brahmo Samaj Raja Rammohan Roy peasants adversely. There was Arya Samaj Swami Dayanand commercialisation of agriculture also. Saraswati Subsistence economy was replaced by a Prarthana Samaj Aatmaram Pandurang market system that thrived on profiteering. Tarkhadkar The spurt in growth of cash crops had an Satya Shodhak Mahatma Jotiba Phule Samaj inverse effect on growth of food crops. The Harijan Sevak Mahatma Gandhi famines in Bengal and Odisha (Orissa) in Sangh 1856 bear testimony to this. Seva Sadan Behramji Malbari (5) Transport and Communication : (Mumbai) Systems of railways and roadways, and Post Dharma Sabha Radhakant Deb and Telegraph offices were set up through Wahabi Syed Waliullah the length and breadth of the country. These Movement were ways in which it became possible to Self-Respect Erode V. Ramasamy reach people in all parts of the country and Movement (Periyar) access resources. In 1869, the Suez Canal was opened to promote trade interests. Earlier, the Indian raw materials could not easily be All these groups struggled to bring transported to England. Development of about changes at the local level in which transportation and communication led to an they operated. They worked towards reforming increase in market outlets for Indian raw obsolete, repressive and regressive religious materials. practices. Many groups worked to promote education among the ‘weaker’ sections – (6) Nationalist Movement : Use of especially women and so-called lower castes. English as a common language of Organisations like the Arya Samaj aimed communication among the educated elite at restoring Vedic traditions and integrating played a significant role in networking, Vedic knowledge with the modern curriculum. promoting nationalism and thereafter the nationalist movement received momentum. (8) Social Legislation : It refers to laws The awakening among the Indian masses passed to promote social justice, social against alien rule resulted in the call for welfare, desirable social change, as well as expulsion of British from India and to fight protection of vulnerable and weaker sections for independence. The 19th century saw the of Indian society. The increase in the number emergence of the Indian National Congress of reformative groups could enable Indians and Mahatma Gandhi as the key figure in to exert pressure upon the British government, the call for independence. for passing laws against prevalent social evils. It may be noted that laws by themselves (7) Social Reform Movements : It was cannot transform society, but they provided the educated Indians, often from the upper hope to those who were victims of injustice, social strata, who spearheaded the agenda oppression, exploitation and abuse. Some for change at the micro-socio levels. The significant legislations include the following. 19th century is witness to the emergence of (See box on page 18) 17 Sociology Std 12  (1) Constitution of India : The Year Name of the Act Constitution of India was framed by the Constituent Assembly, which was founded on 1829 The Prevention of Sati Act 6th December 1946. The head of the Drafting Committee of the Constitution was Dr. B. R. 1843 The Indian Slavery Act Ambedkar. It is a document based on the 1850 The Caste Disabilities Removal strengths of several Constitutions and it Act recognises the diversity of Indian society. It 1856 The Hindu Widow Remarriage Act cherishes the goals of liberty, equality and fraternity. It supports secularism; in the 1870 The Female Infanticide Prevention Indian context this meant, respect for people Act of all religions. There have been numerous 1872 The Civil (or Special) Marriage amendments to the Indian Constitution. A Act recent change has been the abrogation of 1929 The Child Marriage Restraint Act Article 370 in August 2019 which gave special status to Jammu & Kashmir. Check your progress You should know ! With reference to the Colonial period: 1. Name two educational changes. The Constitution of India was made after the Drafting Committee referred to 2. State two economic changes. the Government of India Act (1935) as 3. Cite two administrative changes. well as the Constitutions of Australia, Canada, Activity 4 Germany (Weimer), Discussion : Social reform Ireland, Japan, movements are still present in India. South Africa, Soviet Union, United 1.3 POST-INDEPENDENT INDIA Kingdom and United States. After Independence, the goals and programmes of the country have seen numerous changes. Our ancient culture and (2) Legislation : Concerns and problems the British period had mixed impact on our of people and administration get recognised thought patterns, behaviour patterns, our through academic research, scientific studies, goals, aspirations, needs and so on. Alongside media, advocacy groups and interest groups. these, have emerged new challenges as well Laws are made by the Indian Parliament. as opportunities. We are guided by the Several laws related to civil and criminal principles and values enshrined in the Indian matters have been enacted, which may be Constitution and government plans and amended or repealed from time to time. programmes for change, welfare, inclusion, Some social legislations that would be of development of all its people. Let us examine interest to us are given in the box on page some significant factors that have affected 19. India after 1947. 18 Sociology Std 12  Year Legislative Provisions 1954 The Special Marriage Act 1955 The Hindu Code Bill 1955 The Untouchability (Offences) Act, later renamed, The Protection of Civil Rights Act (PCR Act), in 1976 1956 The Suppression of Immoral Traffic in Women and Girls Act (SITA) 1961 The Dowry Prohibition Act 1971 The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act (MTP Act) 1985 The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act (NDPS Act) 1986 The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act 1995 Persons With Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act 2005 The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (DV Act) 2012 The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act. It was amended in 2019. 2013 The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act 2015 The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act (JJ Act) 2019 The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act entrepreneurship etc. have been key points. (3) Economy : The economic growth of (4) Education : There has been India until recently was guided by Planned significant expansion of number of Development, through twelve Five-Year Plans anganwadis, schools, universities, deemed till 2017. Each plan period has had its own universities, autonomous institutions, IITs objectives. It is necessary to appreciate the (Indian Institute of Technology), IIMs (Indian link between polity and economy, as they are Institute of Management), IIITs (Indian two sides of the same coin. The dispensation Institute of Information Technology), NITs in government influences the philosophy that (National Institute of Technology), vocational drives economic decisions. While we were programmes, open learning, online education, driven by socialist principles for many self-learning opportunities and so on. decades, the government took upon itself the Enrollment numbers have been swelling and responsibility of education and health care spinning beyond control in several cases. in particular. It was in 1991, that a decisive Indeed there are waves of certain courses change led to the onset, and some might say, flourishing from time to time. Number of onslaught, of globalisation. Indeed, teachers have also risen. The challenges of globalisation has its share of positives but education have not diminished. The National there are criticisms too. Since 2014, changes Education Policy 2020 has been approved by such as demonetisation, single taxation policy the Union Cabinet of India on 29th July 2020. under GST, welfare schemes, borderless trade It aims to transform education across all practices, Swachh Bharat drives, promoting levels. 19 Sociology Std 12  also have a federal system of governance – Enrolment in Higher Centre and State/Union Territory. The goals, policies and agenda of each government is Education in India guided by its own principles or ideologies. (in millions) There are differences and multiple views (for example, Left, Right and Centre). The role of the opposition is the responsibility of Private keeping a check on the government in power. Consensus is an important value in a Central democratic society. 0 10 20 30 It is hoped that the introduction to Indian 2006-2007 2016-2017 Society has given a bird’s eye view of our vast culture and the forces that have impacted (5) Polity : In Post-Independent India, the same. This will perhaps equip us to we have taken on a system of governance understand Indian social instutions, to study based on the principle of democracy. India is social change in India, and to examine the the most populous democracy in the world. hurdles that we face with respect to progress The three arms of government are the and development. At the same time, we can Executive, Assembly Legislature and the view some important challenges that lie ahead Judiciary. We have the principle of democratic of us in the future. decentralisation where power percolates down to the grassroots level. The Indian political system no longer recognises the former statuses of Prince, nawab, Raja or Rani. All citizens are equal in the eyes of law. Modern India has embraced the principles and practice of free and fair elections. Voting rights are given to all citizens of India, on the attainment of age 18. India