Understanding Indian Society - Sociology Standard 12

Figurines of male Gods, Mother Goddess and animal deities have been found. No evidence for temples or idol worship, focus on venerating natural elements like sun, rain, water, thunder etc.

A system of religious beliefs practiced by indigenous tribal communities of ancient India. These belief systems had no labels or written scriptures, so much of what is known is based on references from ancient religious texts and colonial ethnographies.

Layer and complex religious practices. Natural elements were venerated. As time passed, some hymns came to be associated with deities like Indra, Agni, Surya, Yama etc.

The four aims of Hindu life. Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha.

The law of Karma, which is the law of cause and effect, the belief that deeds in one life determine the next. It traps the Atman in a cycle of birth and rebirth until it achieves salvation.

The rigidity of varnas (caste groups) into a fixed, closed system of stratification, based on the principle of "purity and pollution".

One of the world's oldest continuously practiced religions, centered on dualistic cosmology of good and evil (Heaven and Hell). Their sacred scripture is the Avesta, with Ahura Mazda being the supreme creator.

A monotheistic religion with a linear view of life, followers believe in the Death and Resurrection of Jesus Christ, centered on the principle of love.

A monotheistic religion that follows the Torah (Old Testament) and believes in the coming of the Messiah. Jewish people have been persecuted through history, and now have their own land, Israel.

A religion that emphasizes the Holy Quran and the Five Pillars of Faith. It spreads widely during the Medieval period and incorporates elements of ethical rationalism.

A rebellion against excessive Hindu ritualism and social hierarchies, based on the theory of Karma, ahimsa (non-harming) and tapas (penance).

A religion focused on the middle path based on the Four Noble Truths and the Eight-fold Path. It emphasizes moral upliftment, charity, self-sacrifice, and non-injury in thoughts and actions.

A religion focused on the teachings of the ten Gurus, with the ‘Guru Granth Sahib’ as their sacred text. It rejects caste-based social hierarchy and promotes equality. Langar symbolizes charity and equality, providing free vegetarian meals for all.

Religious reform movement in Hinduism that rejected the caste system and criticized excessive ritualism. It emphasized devotional singing and repetition of God's name.

A Hindu social philosophy that refers to the four stages in the life of a Hindu, namely: Brahmacharyashram (Studenthood), Grihasthashram (Householder), Vanaprasthashram (hermithood/retirement) and Sanyasashram (renunciation).

Indian women enjoyed a relatively high status in the Early Vedic period, with access to Vedic education (including the Upanayana ceremony) and the ability to choose marriage partners. Monogamy was the main form of marriage, with the possibility of anuloma and pratiloma marriages.

The caste system and Brahminic supremacy became entrenched, leading to a decline in the status of women. They were restricted to household duties, denied access to Vedic education and upanayana ceremony, and subjected to the three obediences.

Jainism embraces the equality of all living creatures and recognizes women's role on the path to liberation. Despite differences between the Digambara and Shvetambara sects, both acknowledge the contributions of women in upholding religious principles.

Buddhism allows women to join the monastic community, providing them with opportunities for education and social service, despite the limitations of not having a female Buddha.

The status of women deteriorated further due to invasions and the influence of Brahmanical laws. Restrictions were imposed on their freedom, access to education, and the practice of widow remarriage. The prevalence of child marriage, sati, purdah system and Devadasi system further marginalized women.

Education, focused on the study of the Vedas, was imparted through an oral tradition in Sanskrit, emphasising the importance of truthfulness, duty, devotion, hospitality, faith, and generosity. Students had to live with the teacher (Upajjhaya or Acharya) and serve him.

Women were denied access to the Upanayana ceremony, which barred them from Vedic education. The emphasis on the institution of sacrifice led to an increase in literature related to it, and the rise of asceticism.

There was rejection of the authority of the Vedas and Vedic priests, along with the emphasis on ahimsa (non-violence). There was no need for renunciation of the world; it was open to all followers. Education was imparted in three ways: Maktab, Madrasa, and Khanqah.

The content of education was based on sacred literature (written in Sanskrit) and aimed at sharpening intellect for character formation. The emphasis was on truthfulness, carrying out dharma, and devotion to teachers and parents. Learning involved a rigorous oral tradition.

Education and literacy flourished, with broader access for all, including the non-nobility. This was a time of advancement in arts, science, politics, religion, philosophy, and economics.

During this period, the society was horizontally divided based on skills, with no rigid hierarchical structure. Excavations reveal organized settlements, well-planned towns, advanced infrastructure like drainage systems, and the presence of different groups like peasants, artisans, traders, etc.

Sangham literature provides insights into the coexistence of tribes and traditional castes. The Brahmins, despite being a numerical minority, held a significant position in Tamilian culture, while other groups like Bards, Vedars (hunter/robbers), and various artisan communities also existed.

From the original meaning of four categories, Varna evolved into a rigid jati (caste) hierarchy based on the ideology of "purity and pollution." This system dictated social interactions, food and water intake, dressing, worship, and social standing.

This period saw the emergence of numerous conquests, early Muslim invaders aiming to exploit India's resources. It also saw a widening gap between liberals and orthodox groups from various faiths, highlighting the impact of conquests and cultural differences.

This period saw a thriving of performing arts, architecture, and sculpture, with the establishment of Din-i-Ilahi by Akbar, a new religion based on ethical rationalism. The period is also marked by strong political administration and the expansion and consolidation of empires.

These concepts signify the co-existence and interdependence of different cultural systems: Great Traditions encompass overarching dominant ideologies like science, philosophy, and fine arts, while Little Traditions represent the local folk art, folklore, and religious traditions.