Sociology for Nurses PDF Textbook

 Sociology for Nurses Second Edition I. Clement Principal VSS College of Nursing...

 Sociology for Nurses Second Edition I. Clement Principal VSS College of Nursing Bangalore, India Chennai Delhi A01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_A01.indd 1 6/10/2014 10:36:29 AM  No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the pub- lisher’s prior written consent. Copyright © 2015 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd. This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. The publisher reserves the right to remove any material in this eBook at any time. ISBN 978-93-325-2526-9 eISBN 978-93-325-4067-5 First Impression Head Office: 7th Floor, Knowledge Boulevard, A-8(A) Sector 62, Noida 201 309, India. Registered Office:11 Community Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India. SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_Copyright Page.indd 1 9/1/2014 11:29:17 AM  Brief Contents Preface xv About the Author xvii Chapter 1 Introduction to Sociology 1 Chapter 2 Sociology and Nursing 30 Chapter 3 Man, Society, and Environment 45 Chapter 4 Primary Concepts in Sociology 79 Chapter 5 Social Process 102 Chapter 6 Culture 129 Chapter 7 Population 153 Chapter 8 Social Groups 176 Chapter 9 Marriage and Family 209 Chapter 10 Rural Communities in India 252 Chapter 11 Urban Communities in India 275 Chapter 12 Social Stratification 295 Chapter 13 Social Mobility 318 Chapter 14 Race 330 Chapter 15 Social System 347 Chapter 16 Social Organization 362 Chapter 17 Social Disorganization 375 Chapter 18 Social Problems 391 Chapter 19 Social Control 504 Chapter 20 Social Change 534 Index 557 A01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_A01.indd 3 6/10/2014 10:36:29 AM A01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_A01.indd 4 6/10/2014 10:36:29 AM  Contents Preface xv About the Author xvii CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Sociology 1 1. Introduction 1 2. Origin of Sociology 2 3. Nature of Sociology 5 4. Scope of Sociology 6 5. Sociology as a Science 7 6. Functions of Sociology 11 7. Sociology and Other Sciences 12 8. Medical Sociology 17 9. Hospital Sociology 18 10. Socio-Cultural and Economic Aspects in Sociology 19 11. Methods of Sociology 20 12. Social Survey 22 13. Fields of Sociology 24 14. Importance of Sociology 25 Chapter Highlights 27 Exercises 27 Answers 29 References 29 CHAPTER 2 Sociology And Nursing 30 1. Introduction 30 2. Sociological Aspects of Nursing 31 3. Need for Sociology in Nursing 31 4. Importance of Sociology in Nursing 33 5. Scope of Sociology in Nursing 34 6. Uses of Sociology in Nursing 37 7. Nursing Application of Sociology in Different Fields: Other Fields of Sociology 39 Chapter Highlights 42 Exercises 42 Answers 43 References 43 A01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_A01.indd 5 6/10/2014 10:36:29 AM  vi | Contents CHAPTER 3 Man, Society, And Environment 45 1. Introduction 45 2. Theories of Man and Society 46 3. Nature of Society 48 4. Relation between Society and Individual 51 5. Relation between Society and Community 52 6. Brief Review of Growth and Development 53 7. Rights and Responsibilities of the Individual 54 8. Personal Disorganization 58 9. Socialization Process 60 10. Individualization 63 11. Environment and Health 64 12. Effects of Environmental Health on Man 66 13. Protecting Health from Climate Change 69 14. Protecting Man’s Health from Climate Change 71 15. Nurses’ Role after Learning about Man, Society, and Environment 74 Chapter Highlights 75 Exercises 75 Answers 77 References 77 CHAPTER 4 Primary Concepts In Sociology 79 1. Introduction 79 2. Society 80 3. Community 84 4. Association 89 5. Institution 91 6. Organization 94 7. Social Structure 95 8. Social System 96 Chapter Highlights 99 Exercises 99 Answers 100 References 101 CHAPTER 5 Social Process 102 1. Introduction 102 2. Forms of Social Process 102 3. Cooperation 104 4. Accommodation 106 A01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_A01.indd 6 6/10/2014 10:36:29 AM  Contents | vii 5. Assimilation 110 6. Conflict 113 7. Competition 118 8. Isolation 124 Chapter Highlights 125 Exercises 126 Answers 128 References 128 CHAPTER 6 Culture 129 1. Introduction 129 2. Classification of Cultures 130 3. Characteristics of Culture 132 4. Nature of Culture 134 5. Relation between Culture and Civilization 134 6. Difference between Culture and Civilization 135 7. Cultural Diversity 136 8. Components of Culture 137 9. Cultural Growth 140 10. Evolution of Culture 141 11. Need of Culture in Man 142 12. Cultural Variability 142 13. Functions of Culture 143 14. Influence of Culture on Health and Illnesses 144 15. Role of Nurses in Cultural Practices 147 Chapter Highlights 148 Exercises 149 Answers 152 References 152 CHAPTER 7 Population 153 1. Introduction 153 2. Society and Population 154 3. Population Factors and Social Structure 155 4. History and Theory of Population Growth 156 5. Demography 158 6. Population Control 161 7. Causes of Population Growth 163 8. Population Explosion 164 9. Population Distribution in India 166 10. Population Health 167 11. Family Welfare Programme 171 A01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_A01.indd 7 6/10/2014 10:36:29 AM  viii | Contents Chapter Highlights 173 Exercises 173 Answers 174 References 175 CHAPTER 8 Social Groups 176 1. Introduction 176 2. Characteristics of Social Groups 178 3. Classifications or Types of Social Groups 180 4. Group Cycle, Group Morale, and Group Behaviour 181 5. Primary, Secondary, and Quasi Groups 183 6. Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft 187 7. Reference Groups 188 8. In-Group and Out-Group 189 9. Clan/Sib 189 10. Tribe 193 11. Crowd 196 12. Public 197 13. Audience 199 14. Mob 201 15. Economic Groups 202 16. Political Groups 203 17. Religious Groups 203 Chapter Highlights 204 Exercises 205 Answers 207 References 207 CHAPTER 9 Marriage and Family 209 1. Introduction 209 2. Forms of Marriage 211 3. Endogamy 212 4. Exogamy 214 5. Polygamy 215 6. Polyandry 217 7. Polygyny 218 8. Monogamy 218 9. Inter-Caste Marriage 220 10. Marriage Legislation and Family Problems in India 220 11. Marriage–Health Connection 223 12. Effects of Marital Status on Health 224 A01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_A01.indd 8 6/10/2014 10:36:29 AM  Contents | ix 13. Family 225 14. Family as a Unit for Health and Other Services 230 15. Joint Family 234 16. Modern Family 239 17. Nuclear Family 243 18. Blended and Extended Family 246 Chapter Highlights 247 Exercises 248 Answers 251 References 251 CHAPTER 10 Rural Communities In India 252 1. Introduction 252 2. Characteristics of Indian Villages 252 3. Importance of Villages in India 255 4. Factors Shaping the Growth of Village Communities 256 5. Rural Health 259 6. Changes in Rural Life 262 7. Rural Reconstruction Programmes 264 8. Special Programmes 265 9. Community Development Programme 265 10. Twenty-Point Programme 266 11. Panchayati Raj: Democratic Decentralization 267 12. Health Facilities in Rural Society 269 13. Rural Health-Care Delivery System 270 14. National Rural Health Mission 271 Chapter Highlights 272 Exercises 272 Answers 274 References 274 CHAPTER 11 Urban Communities In India 275 1. Introduction 275 2. Urbanization 276 3. Classifications of Cities 276 4. Characteristics of Urban Communities 277 5. Features of Urban Communities 280 6. The Regional Community 281 7. Cities and Their Growth 282 8. Urban Social Problems 283 A01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_A01.indd 9 6/10/2014 10:36:29 AM  x | Contents 9. Social Effects of Urbanization 286 10. Slums 287 11. Impact of Urbanization on Health 288 12. National Urban Health Mission in India (Nuhm) 290 Chapter Highlights 291 Exercises 291 Answers 293 References 293 CHAPTER 12 Social Stratification 295 1. Introduction 295 2. Caste System 300 3. Changes in the Caste System 306 4. Jajmani System 309 5. Social Class System 310 6. Untouchability and Discrimination 313 7. Caste and Health 313 Chapter Highlights 314 Exercises 314 Answers 317 References 317 CHAPTER 13 Social Mobility 318 1. Introduction 318 2. Meaning of Social Mobility 318 3. Classifications or Types of Mobility 319 4. Systems of Social Mobility 320 5. Structural and Individual Mobility 320 6. Factors Influencing Mobility 321 7. Dimensions of Social Mobility 322 8. Determinants of Social Mobility 323 9. Importance of Social Mobility 324 10. Changes in Mobility 325 11. Health and Social Mobility 326 Chapter Highlights 327 Exercises 327 Answers 328 References 329 CHAPTER 14 Race 330 1. Introduction 330 2. Meaning of Race 330 A01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_A01.indd 10 6/10/2014 10:36:29 AM  Contents | xi 3. Kinds of Races 331 4. Race as a Biological Concept 332 5. Races in India 333 6. Unesco’s Concept of Race 333 7. Characteristics of Race 334 8. Racism 337 9. Ethnicity 338 10. Minorities 340 11. Race and Diseases 342 12. Ethnic Health Inequalities 343 Chapter Highlights 344 Exercises 344 Answers 346 References 346 CHAPTER 15 Social System 347 1. Introduction 347 2. Definition of Social System 348 3. Meaning of Social System 348 4. Units of Social System 349 5. Elements of Social System 349 6. Status 350 7. Characteristics of Status 351 8. Classifications of Status 351 9. Importance of Social Status 353 10. Classifications of Social System 355 11. Status and Office 355 12. Status Comparison 356 13. Role 356 14. Influence of Social Status on Health 358 Chapter Highlights 358 Exercises 359 Answers 361 References 361 CHAPTER 16 Social Organization 362 1. Introduction 362 2. Meaning of Social Organization 363 3. Characteristics of Social Organization 363 4. Elements of Social Organizations 364 5. Social Organization and Social Group 365 6. Features of Social Organization 365 A01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_A01.indd 11 6/10/2014 10:36:29 AM  xii | Contents 7. Types of Social Organizations 366 8. Relationship between Formal and Informal Organizations 367 9. Differences between Formal and Informal Organizations 368 10. Voluntary Social Health Agencies 368 11. Role of Individuals in Organizations 371 12. Role of Social Welfare Organizations in Maintaining Health 371 Chapter Highlights 372 Exercises 372 Answers 374 References 374 CHAPTER 17 Social Disorganization 375 1. Introduction 375 2. Meaning of Social Disorganizations 376 3. Nature of Social Disorganizations 377 4. Causes of Social Disorganization 378 5. Characteristics of Social Disorganization 381 6. Social Disorganization Process 381 7. Factors of Social Disorganizations 382 8. Symptoms of Social Disorganization 384 9. Approaches to the Study of Social ­Disorganization 385 10. Difference between Social Organization and Disorganization 385 11. Deviance and Disorganization 386 12. Personal Disorganization 387 13. Personal Disorganization and Social Disorganization 388 14. Social Pathology 388 Chapter Highlights 388 Exercises 388 Answers 390 References 390 CHAPTER 18 Social Problems 391 1. Introduction 391 2. Poverty 394 3. Illiteracy 398 4. Food Supply 400 5. Housing Problems 403 6. Prostitution 406 A01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_A01.indd 12 6/10/2014 10:36:29 AM  Contents | xiii 7. Rights of Women 411 8. Women Abuse 424 9. Unmarried Mothers 428 10. Rights of the Child 429 11. Vulnerable Group: The Elderly 433 12. Vulnerable Group: The Handicapped 439 13. Child Labour 443 14. Child Abuse 449 15. Juvenile Delinquency 456 16. Crime 463 17. Substance Abuse 469 18. Hiv/Aids 475 19. Dowry System 484 20. Alcoholism 489 21. Unemployment 494 Chapter Highlights 498 Exercises 498 Answers 502 References 502 CHAPTER 19 Social Control 504 1. Introduction 504 2. Meaning of Social Control 505 3. Purposes of Social Control 505 4. Essentials of Social Control 506 5. Development of the Concept of Social Control 507 6. Need for Social Control 508 7. Types of Social Control 510 8. Application of Social Control Theory 511 9. Customs 512 10. Tradition 516 11. Folkways 517 12. Norms 520 13. Mores 522 14. Law 525 15. Education 527 16. Deviance 529 17. Influence of Social Control on Health Behaviours 530 Chapter Highlights 531 Exercises 531 Answers 533 References 533 A01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_A01.indd 13 6/10/2014 10:36:29 AM  xiv | Contents CHAPTER 20 Social Change 534 1. Introduction 534 2. Meaning of Social Change 535 3. Nature of Social Change 535 4. Difference between Social Change and Cultural Change 536 5. Factors Involved in Social Change 537 6. Factors of Social Change in India 539 7. Cultural Lag and Social Change 539 8. Theories of Social Change 540 9. Concepts of Evolution, Development, and Progress 542 10. Social Development 543 11. Social Progress 544 12. Impact of Technological Change 545 13. Social Movement Types 548 Chapter Highlights 552 Exercises 553 Answers 554 References 554 Index 557 A01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_A01.indd 14 6/10/2014 10:36:29 AM  Preface It gives me immense pleasure to write the second edition of this book on sociology, which was my long run aim, and it has been fulfilled today. I thank my God who has given me the strength and the willpower to complete the task. Through this book, I would like to transfer my ideas to the nursing community to become a successful nurse in the society. Sociology is a branch of science that deals with social functions of the society. It is important for every nursing student to understand and learn sociology because society is composed of people living with diverse culture, thoughts, beliefs, customs, and taboos. Once a nurse learns about different societal patterns of living, it becomes easy for the nurse to get the cooperation from that particular people in the society. Therefore, a nurse learns how to respond to their needs and accomplish the nursing care as they encounter those people in their nursing care setting. Basically, sociology helps the nurse to understand the interaction between the man, society, and environment in detail, where the nurse can act as a mediator to balance the equilibrium between man, society, and environment in aspects of providing complete health care for healthy living. The ultimate aim is to prepare a nurse to attain different role as a good communicator, social researcher, counsellor, and care giver in the society in order to prevent illness and to promote and restore health of the people in the society. Today’s people and their view on expected nursing care has been changed, and they expect high quality patient-oriented care from every nurse. Therefore, the nurse should be well pre- pared before they provide care to the people in the society. This book will definitely help those students to gain in-depth knowledge about the societal functions, existing social problems in the society, social process, social stratification, social process, primary concepts of sociology, race, urban and rural communities, social mobility, social control, and so on. This revised second edition on Sociology for Nurses spans twenty chapters. The chapters are explained and enriched with suitable diagrams, and the contents are illustrated in lucid language. The chapters are appended with thought provoking and interesting multiple choice questions. Moreover, the contents of this book are redesigned as per the requirements of Indian Nursing Council, and therefore, students studying all types of courses in nursing such as general nursing, bachelors, and even masters can use this book as a guide. I am sure whoever reading this book will definitely attain good marks and also develop good attitude towards the people in the society. I wish the students my best wishes! Acknowledgements I am thankful to the Lord Almighty, who strengthens me with His abundant blessings through innumerable means, helping me in all my accomplishments. I am indebted to Shri. Sommana, former minister of Karnataka and chairman of the VSS group of institutions, Bangalore, for his constant support and encouragement. A01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_A01.indd 15 6/10/2014 10:36:29 AM  xvi | Preface I am grateful to my guru B.T. Basavanthappa, Principal, Rajarajeshwari College of Nursing, Bangalore, and P.V. Ramachandran, Chairman, College of Nursing, Sri Ramachandra Univer- sity, Chennai—a great philosopher and an internationally renowned teacher of nursing—who helped me to discover the world of knowledge. I honor-bound to acknowledge the help and encouragement provided by Ms Shylaja ­Sommana, Managing Director, Dr B.S. Arun, Dr B.S. Naveen and Ms Divya of the VSS group of institutions. I am also obliged to Dr B.C. Bhagavan, Professor, Department of Surgery, Kem- pegowda Institute of Medical Sciences, Bangalore, and Dr Ashwathnarayan, MLA, and Chair- man of the Padmashree group of institutions, Bangalore. I appreciate the support rendered by Dr T.V. Ramakrishnan, Professor of ­Anesthesiology and Head of Clinical Services, Department of Accident and Emergency Medicine, Sri ­Ramachandra ­University, Chennai, Dr Jeyaseelan Manickam Devadasan, Dean, Dr Tamilmani, Principal, Prof. Jessie ­Sudarsanam, Head, Department of Medical Surgical Nursing, Annai JKK Sampoorani Ammal College of Nursing, Komarapalayam and the good wishes of all my teachers and students. Special thanks are due to Ms Dheepika, Mr Balakrishnan and all staff members of Pearson Education who worked to bring out this book to ­fruition. Finally, I thank my beloved parents, brothers and sisters, and my wife Nisha Clement for their continuous support and constant encouragement in each step of my life. I take this ­opportunity to thank my little ones, Cibin, Cynthia and Cavin and my beloved friend and brother Regi T. Kurien. I. Clement A01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_A01.indd 16 6/10/2014 10:36:29 AM  About the Author I. Clement is Principal, VSS College of Nursing, Bangalore. An ­erudite scholar with PG diploma in hospital administration and ­postgraduate degree in the fields of nursing, sociology, childcare and education, he is a recipient of the coveted Florence Nightingale Award for nursing in 2013. He is an eminent author with a flair for enhancing the cause of education in nursing and allied sciences. He has contributed articles to Nightingale Nursing Times, Nurses of India, The Journal of Christian Medical Association of India, and Asian Journal of Cardiac Nursing. Clement is a life member of Trained Nurses Association of India, Christian Medical Association of India, Indian Hospital Association, ­Indian Society of Psychiatric Nurses, Asian Association of Cardiac Nurses, Indian Red Cross ­Society, National Research Society of India and Indian Society of Medical Surgical ­Nursing. He has organized many workshops and conferences and presented research and scientific papers at various conferences and workshops. An avid reader keen to be abreast of contem- porary nursing practices, he is currently member of the national editorial advisory board for International Journal of Practical Nursing, New Delhi. A01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_A01.indd 17 6/10/2014 10:36:30 AM A01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_A01.indd 18 6/10/2014 10:36:30 AM  1 Introduction to Sociology Learning Objectives Introduction Hospital sociology Origin of sociology Socio-cultural and economic aspects Nature of sociology in sociology Scope of sociology Methods of sociology Sociology as a science Social survey Functions of sociology Fields of sociology Sociology and other sciences Importance of sociology Medical sociology 1. INTRODUCTION The word ‘sociology’ is derived from the Latin word societus, meaning ‘society’, and the Greek word logos, meaning ‘study’ or ‘science’. Thus, sociology means the science of society. It essentially and fundamentally deals with the network of social relationships we call ‘society’. It is one of the youngest social science disciplines. The term sociology was coined by Auguste Comte, the French philosopher often referred to as the father of sociology. He introduced the word sociology for the first time in his famous work Positive Philosophy in about 1839. Enlightenment brought about the need to develop a ‘scientific’ outlook and to interpret the world in terms of the laws of science, discarding the earlier theological interpretations. Thus, social thinkers thought that development was scientific in nature. While Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle were the first to work out a model for human society, social thinkers in the 19th century started thinking about the emergence, growth, and development of society from the perspectives of science. 1.1. The Teaching of Sociology as a Separate Discipline Sociology is one of the youngest of the social science disciplines. It was earlier studied as a part of philosophy. With the development of modern science and scientific methods during the 18th M01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_CH01.indd 1 6/4/2014 12:45:24 PM  2  |   Sociology for Nurses and 19th centuries, there was a separation of sociology from philosophy and a closer associa- tion with the natural or physical sciences. The general concepts of sociology are as follows: ❑❑ Sociology is a science of society. ❑❑ Sociology is a science of social relationships. ❑❑ Sociology is the study of social life. ❑❑ Sociology is the study of human behaviour in groups. ❑❑ Sociology is the study of social action. ❑❑ Sociology is the study of forms of social relationships. ❑❑ Sociology is the study of social groups or social systems. Science of society Human Social behaviour in relationships groups Concepts of sociology is study of: Social Social action systems Social life Figure 1.1 General Concepts of Sociology 2. ORIGIN OF SOCIOLOGY Sociology can be considered as one of the youngest as well as one of the oldest of social sciences. It came to be recognized as a distinct branch of knowledge only recently. However, from the begin- ning of civilization, society has been a subject of enquiry and has spurred on the restless and curi- ous mind of man. For thousands of years, men have reflected on the societies in which they lived. However, sociology as a science and particularly as a separate field of study is of recent origin. The earliest attempts at systematic thought regarding social life in the West may be said to have begun with the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (427–347 BCE). Plato’s Republic is an analysis of the city community in all its aspects. Later, in Aristotle’s Ethics and Politics, we find the first major attempts to deal systematically with the law, the society, and the state. M01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_CH01.indd 2 6/4/2014 12:45:24 PM  Introduction to Sociology  |   3 Box 1.1 Definitions of Sociology L.F. Ward: Sociology is the science of society or social phenomena. M. Ginsberg: Sociology is the study of human interaction and inter-relations, and inter- relations, their conditions and consequences. L.M.V. von Wiese: Sociology is a special social science concentrating on inter-human behaviours, on processes of sociation, on association and dissociation as such J.F. Cuber: Sociology may be defined as a body of scientific knowledge about human relationships. Georg Simmel: Sociology asks what happens to men and by what rules they behave, not in so far as they unfold their understandable individual existences in their totalities, but in so far as they from groups and are determined by their group existence because of interaction. M.E. Jones: The chief interest of sociology is the people, the ideas the customs, and the other distinctively human phenomena, which surround man and influence him, and which are, therefore, part of his environment. Sociology also devotes some attention to certain aspects of the geographical environment and to some natural, as contrasted with human, phenomena but this interest is secondary to its preoccupation with human beings and the products of human life in associations. Our general field of study is man as he is related to other men and to the creations of other men which surround him. Max Weber: Sociology is the science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social action. E.B. Reuter: The purpose of sociology is to establish a body of valid principles, a fund of objective knowledge that will make possible the direction and control of social and human reality. F.H. Giddings: Sociology is an attempt to account for the origin, growth, structure and activities of sociology by the operation of physical causes working together in the process of evolution. Pitirim Sorokin: Sociology is a generalizing science of socio-cultural phenomena viewed in their generic form, types and manifold interconnections. K. Young and R.W. Mack: Sociology is the scientific study of the structure of social life. Arthur Fairbanks: Sociology is the name applied to the somewhat inchoate mass of mate- rials which embodies our knowledge of society. Arnold W. Green: Sociology is the synthesizing and generalizing science of man in all his social relationships. R.M. Maclver: Sociology is about social relationships, the network of relationships we call society. Samuel Koenig: Sociology is the study of man’s behaviour in groups or of interaction among human beings. M01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_CH01.indd 3 6/4/2014 12:45:24 PM  4  |   Sociology for Nurses Auguste Comte: Sociology is the science of social phenomena. Ely Chinoy: Sociology is the study of human groups, of human interaction, or of social institutions. Alex Inkeles: Sociology is concerned with three major subject areas: society as a whole, social institutions and social organizations, and social interaction and relationships. George Ritzer: Sociology is the study of individuals in a social setting…. Sociologists study the interrelationships between individuals, organizations, cultures and societies. Betty Yorburg: Sociology is the study of the typical ways of thinking, feeling and acting of people who are similarly located in time and physical and social space. The Romans were mainly preoccupied with the legal aspects of European society and did not focus on its non-legalistic aspects. Therefore, they produced few original social philosophies. Among Romans, the most outstanding author is Cicero, who in his book, De Officus (On Justice), transmit- ted to the Western world the treasures of Greek learning in philosophy, politics, law, and sociology. In the Middle Ages, scholasticism developed as a method of learning in the universities, which focused on reasoning and merged classical philosophy with medieval Christian theol- ogy. The scholastics propounded the Biblical thesis that man is a special creation of God: He is subject to no laws but those of God, and that the social system is divinely sanctioned. It was not until the 16th century that a clear-cut distinction was made between the state and the society, and there appeared writers who treated social issues from a more pragmatic point of view. In the 18th century, Italian writer Vico and French writer Montesquieu made notable con- tribution towards the scientific investigation of social phenomena. According to Montesquieu, laws are an expression of the national character, and the spirit they exhibit can be explained in the light of the social and geographical conditions under which men live. Climate is the princi- pal determinant of social life. In the 19th century, Auguste Comte (1798–1857) coined the term ‘sociology’ and stated that it is a science of social phenomena subject to natural and invariable laws, and their discovery is the object of investigation. Comte proposed the study of sociology in two main parts: social statics and social dynamics. In social statics, the subject of study is how societies are interrelated. Social dynamics deals with whole societies as the unit of analysis, and explains how they developed and changed through time. Comte’s important works are Positive Philosophy and Positive Polity. Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), considered as one of the most brilliant social thinkers of the 19th century, established sociology as a systematic discipline. His book, Principles of ­Sociology, was published in three volumes in 1877 and it deals with sociological analysis. According to him, family, politics, religion, social control, and work (industry) are the fields of sociology. His work gives an account of how the parts of a society influence the whole. Emile Durkheim (1858–1917), a French philosopher, was the first modern thinker to explain the existence and quality of different parts of a society by reference to what function they served in maintaining the ‘whole’. Durkheim also stated that society was more than the sum of its parts. Thus, he focused not on the study of social facts, that is, ways of thinking, feeling, acting, and so on, which exist over and above the actions of individuals. According to him, as ‘social facts’ are external to individuals, they can be studied by sociologists. Durkheim studied religion, division M01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_CH01.indd 4 6/4/2014 12:45:24 PM  Introduction to Sociology  |   5 of labour, and suicide as social facts. His main works are The Division of Labour in Society, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, Suicide, and Rules of the Sociological Method. German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920) made pioneering contributions through his theory of social action, concept of bureaucracy, and concept of the ideal type. The ideal type, according to Weber, is not related to any type of perfection and has no connection at all with value judgements. It is purely a logical one: a methodical device that tries to render a subject matter intelligible by revealing or constructing its inner rationally. The study of sociology was initiated in India in 1919 at the University of Bombay, but it was in 1930 that it began to be taught as a separate discipline. Indian writers in the early 20th century, such as G.S. Ghurye, R.K. Mukerjee, D.P. Mukherji, Benoy K. Sarkar, H.T. Mazumdar, and N.K. Bose, made original contributions to the sociological study of India’s villages, the caste system, marriage, kinship, and family in India, creating the foundations of the discipline in India. 3. NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY The nature of sociology depicts the frame that the society forms by fixed and systematic exami- nation of peoples’ social activities through face-to-face interactions, developed from active movement of civilization and history. Sociology not only focuses on a single aspect of society but also governs multiple dimensions of social life that includes economy, state, family, reli- gion, science, social inequality, culture, and human life. Sociology, as a branch of social sci- ence, by its nature has its own method of investigation done based on theoretical traditions and has its roots grounded in pragmatic approach on observation of social reality. Sociology as a subject, which is the branch of social science, gives knowledge about society and its functions, and explains the nature of social activity, and that each society has different nature. The impor- tant characteristics of sociology are as follows: ❑❑ It is a purely independent science. ❑❑ It is a social science with no definite normative discipline. ❑❑ It is a pure science and not a practical science. ❑❑ It is more or less an abstract science and not a concrete science. The nature of sociology dwells up with people in the society and the types of family found in it, such as nuclear, joint and extended families. The activities of these family types are explained by the nature of sociology. Each society has its own caste system and it is usual that marriage occurs with same caste people. However, some societies encourage marriages to occur with blended families, which means that people get married belonging to different castes with broad mind and positive attitude. People in the society and the parents or elders of the respective couples accept the blended family. Although such family is formed in a socially acceptable manner, there are both advantages and disadvantages that decide the nature of the society. 3.1. Disadvantages ❑❑ There are more chances for the siblings to get into enmity and rivalry. ❑❑ The young children in the family may act into bad habits, such as smoking and alcohol consumption. M01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_CH01.indd 5 6/4/2014 12:45:24 PM  6  |   Sociology for Nurses ❑❑  amily members may have conflict with financial issues. They may be selfish with their F money in issuing to other members of the family. 3.2. Advantages ❑❑ Single parent gets life after remising. ❑❑ A new type of family blending is formed. ❑❑ Child of a divorced or widowed spouse gets a new parent. 3.3. Conclusion A family is a social institution where the members are joined in a socially acceptable manner, where they share the responsibility in building up a good family, develop good relationship with society, and frame social relationship with society. Families are formed after legally acceptable procedure, that is, marriage where each member enjoys his or her complete life. ❑❑ It is a general science that does not deal with any one particular individual. ❑❑ It is a branch of science that is rational and empirical in nature. ❑❑ Sociology is a branch of social science that deals with disciplines of reversal distinct modes of enquiry. It has human sociality as central part of any pursuit. In this perspective of sociology, human activities are understood as a web of social relationships with broader structures. Few studies in sociology focus on intimate, face-to-face communication and about activities and functions of whole civilization throughout history, but most of them focus on human activities in context. In this manner it gets differentiated from psychol- ogy, which deals only about autonomous individual as basic unit of analysis. Sociology perceives human life as a whole. It is better understood only when it is connected properly to the social life. Social theories form main and central part of social investigation because they give complete statements, which are comprehensive and will have connections among various factors of social life. Certain important theories in sociology may focus on economic and cultural forces that have greater significance in shaping the society, as sociology as a discipline requires doing in-depth research in order to have a clear concept to understand the relationship among the focused fac- tors within the social life as a whole. The term ‘whole’ means the comprehensive understanding about the focused factors. Therefore, in this manner, sociology can be differentiated from other disciplines like economics and political science that form centre part of enquiry. 4. SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY Scope means to understand in depth about the area of the study. Sociology has its own field of enquiry. It has its own boundary of knowledge and scope. There are multiple opinions about soci- ology, but there are two main thoughts given from the school of sociology, which are as follows: 1. Specialist or formalistic school 2. Synthetic school M01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_CH01.indd 6 6/4/2014 12:45:24 PM  Introduction to Sociology  |   7 Both schools of sociology have contradictory ideas about sociology. Specialist school has belief that sociology is a specified science and has limited scope, whereas the synthetic school believes that sociology is a general science and has vast scope. 4.1. Specialistic School Famous sociologists who support this school were George Simmel, Vierkandt, Max Weber, von Wiese, and F. Tonnies. The important concept and ideas about this school on sociology are follows: ❑❑ Sociology is a pure, independent, specific social science. ❑❑ Sociology studies in detail about various forms of social relationships. ❑❑ Scope of sociology has its narrow space and is limited. ❑❑ Sociology deals with particular form of human relationship. ❑❑ It studies only important events connected with social science. ❑❑ Simmel, the sociologist, has the belief that given that sociology is a specific science, it should deal with social relationships with multiple angles or dimensions. 4.1.1. Criticism or Disadvantages ❑❑ Sociologists alone do not study the social relationships but other social scientists also do it. ❑❑ It is practically difficult to differentiate the forms of social relationships that is explained in following chapters, and it is hard to explain the society in a nut shell, as the society deals with different types of social relationships. ❑❑ Formalistic schools have sorted out that scope of sociology is narrow and limited. ❑❑ Full concept of sociology is imaginary. 4.2. Synthetic Schools Main sociologists who supported this school were Ginsberg, Durkheim, Comte, Sorokin, Spen- cer, F. Ward, and L.T. Hobhouse. The important views and concept of the sociologists about this school are follows. ❑❑ Sociology is a systematic and, moreover, general social science. ❑❑ Sociology covers various areas and has most scope in the area of enquiry. ❑❑ It is ultimately a synthesis of social science. 5. SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE 5.1. The Scientific Method In order to describe or illustrate sociology as social science in a better way, there is a need to do an in-depth systematic scientific enquiry using scientific methods. The subject matter on sociol- ogy that if required to be described always has a limited space; therefore, sociology should be systematically enquired, and moreover, any subject that is dealt in scientific method requires M01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_CH01.indd 7 6/4/2014 12:45:25 PM  8  |   Sociology for Nurses greater patience, good confidence, better knowledge, diligence, creative imagination ability, and objectivity in order to define it as a scientific social science. Therefore, without this scien- tific attitude and with good social spirit, nobody can profit nor describe sociology as a scientific science. This method consists of the following five steps: 1. Observation: The first or initial step in a scientific method is a minute and careful observa- tion of the subject matter of research. This kind of observation differs from simply looking around. Scientific observation proceeds systematically. It must be accurate and precise, and should take place under controlled conditions, though this is sometimes difficult. 2. Recording: The second step of a scientific method is a careful recording of all the data obtained in the observation. For this, unbiased objectivity is necessary. 3. Classification: The collected data has to be then classified and organized. The classification is aimed at placing disintegrated facts into such a relation that they exhibit a symmetrical pat- tern. In this way, the subject matter is systematically arranged on a logical basis, leading to the formulation of concepts that symbolize whole categories of people, objects, and processes. 4. Verification: Because most research is subject to error—of which the researcher may not be aware—verification is an important step of a scientific method. This step consists of repeating, or replicating, the research project by the original scientist or by others. For a research to be considered valid, it must be capable of being replicated with the same results. 5. Generalization: The last step in the scientific method is to generalize the findings of the research by analysing the possible relationships among concepts. Conclusions are drawn from the analysis of the data. Such generalization leads to theories and laws. Observation Recording Generalization Classification Verification Figure 1.2 Steps of Scientific Methods in Sociology as Science 5.2. The Essential Elements of Science Let us now discuss the essential elements of science on the basis of the foregoing discussion, and see whether sociology can be called a science. M01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_CH01.indd 8 6/4/2014 12:45:25 PM  Introduction to Sociology  |   9 5.2.1. The Scientific Method As has been stated earlier, science is so called not because of its subject matter but because it employs scientific methods. 5.2.2. Objectivity Scientists must relieve themselves of personal attitudes, desires, beliefs, values, and tendencies when confronting data intended to support a finding. They must not allow any biases to influ- ence their judgements. 5.2.3. Ethical Neutrality Scientists cannot make value judgements about their conclusions; they must only be concerned with whether their findings are true or false. 5.2.4. Relativity Scientific findings are always subject to change or revision, based on new discoveries or changes in any of the elements involved. Therefore, scientific findings cannot be considered as universal or final truths. While in the natural and physical sciences it is also possible to have universal laws, the social sciences have no laws because they deal with people rather than inanimate objects. 5.3. How Sociology Is a Science 5.3.1. Sociology Employs the Scientific Method All the methods of sociology are scientific. Sociological methods employ various scientific apparatus, such as scales of sociometry, surveys, questionnaires, interviews, case studies, and so on. In these methods, the first step is the collection of data through observation, which are then systematically recorded. Following this, the data are classified, research results replicated, and theories formulated on the basis of the accepted data. Relativity Neutral Objective Scientific method Sociology is a science Figure 1.3 How Sociology Is a Science M01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_CH01.indd 9 6/4/2014 12:45:25 PM  10  |   Sociology for Nurses 5.3.2. Sociologists Try to Be Objective Although objectivity is a goal of social science research, total objectivity in social science research is often an ideal, since the researchers’ class, education, gender, and so on, may influ- ence the way they view their subjects. Whether total objectivity is possible or even desirable in social science research is a matter of much debate. 5.3.3. Sociologists Need to Be Neutral Sociologists are not supposed to state if their conclusions are good or bad, and therefore they subscribe to principles of value neutrality. 5.3.4. Relativity Social science theories are frequently questioned and undergo revisions depending upon changes occurring in the society. Furthermore, unlike in the natural sciences, there may be dif- ferent theories about the same social phenomena, which may all be equally valid. 5.4. The Difference between Social Sciences and Physical Sciences Sociology and other social sciences share with other sciences the use of the scientific methods. However, it is evident from the preceding discussion that though sociology is a scientific disci- pline, it cannot be compared to the natural or physical sciences. Roughly speaking, the natural or physical and social sciences differ in the following respects (Table 1.1). Table 1.1 Difference between Social Sciences and Physical Sciences Social Science Physical Science Social science investigates laws related to Physical science searches for physical laws in man’s social behaviour. natural phenomena. Social science proceeds upon the There is no equivalent in physical science. assumptions that man is the central figure. The fundamental elements of social The basic elements of physical sciences have a sciences are psychological related. physical relation. The basic elements of social science cannot Because they study physical elements, the physical be separated analytically. science possesses greater exactness. Because of their lesser exactness, social Physical sciences can make more predictions due sciences can make comparatively few to their higher degree of exactness. predications. Objectivity is achieved with difficulty in Objectivity is attained easily in physical sciences. social sciences. Social science provides comparatively There is greater possibility of measurement in the lesser scope for measurement of subjects study of physical examination. matter. It is difficult to construct laboratories Physical sciences have their own laboratories for social sciences. Society is the because they can easily be constructed for studying laboratory. physical objects. M01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_CH01.indd 10 6/4/2014 12:45:25 PM  Introduction to Sociology  |   11 6. FUNCTIONS OF SOCIOLOGY 6.1. Technical Function India is a newly born democracy. Although it was at the peak of prosperity in ancient times, its condition deteriorated in the Middle Ages, and there have been no improvements since. As a result, the democracy is facing many obstacles and difficulties. In brief, the country’s lead- ers and thoughtful citizens are faced with the problems of reconstructing the country. In this reconstruction will lie the foundation of social reconstruction. Problems concerning mores, tra- ditions, institutions, classes, castes, and so on, will have to be faced. There are many problems faced in operating the technical function of sociology, therefore first and foremost step to fulfil the operational function of sociology is to understand about present content and its meaning of democracy and this function is carried out by a sociologist. Technical Introductory Informative Tolerative Cultural Figure 1.4 Functions of Sociology 6.2. Introductory Function Sociology not only undertakes to supply information concerning the meaning of various parts of the social system, but also acquaints one with the nature and laws of those in order to facili- tate the interaction of any change. Before any desired change can be made in a society, it is nec- essary to know the methods that can introduce this change into its various parts. These methods are scientifically studied in sociology. 6.3. Informative Function In this way, the study of sociology would put the social worker and officers in India in pos- session of important information. A theoretical study can never be a substitute for practical experience. The country can progress only through practical improvements, not by theoretical study. However, a theoretical and scientific study of such problems of society, such as unem- ployment, poverty, prostitution, crime, social disorganization, individual disorganization, lack of food, and so on, is a good background for practical efforts at such improvement. Society is a complex structure and its problems cannot be comprehensible to every individual. There must be a scientific study of these if they are to be understood. It is necessary to conduct sociological researches into special circumstances so that there can be proper guidance in practice. 6.4. Tolerative Function In India, one comes across people belonging to many different castes, races, tribes, religions, and cultures. A sociological study would make a comprehensive survey of the customs and M01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_CH01.indd 11 6/4/2014 12:45:26 PM  12  |   Sociology for Nurses traditions of each of them. This would tend to enhance tolerance and benevolence. For example, a person studying the customs relating to diet, living, clothing, marriage, and so on, of one tribe would not compare them with his or her own and look at one or the other as superior but would rather be inclined to consider both from a scientific viewpoint, an attitude of curi- ous and speculative interest. As a result, he would not restrict morality to thoughts of class segregation but would make an effort to recognize or discover its real universal nature of form. This would lead to the removal of narrow differences and give the seed of nationalism a chance to strike roots and develop into a feeling of universal brotherhood with the passage of time. 6.5. Cultural Function The development of society is impossible without cultural development. A scientific study of the various meanings of culture and principles of their activities, besides a study of their impor- tance, would be an added advantage, before trying to make any practical contribution to cultural development. As it is necessary to theoretically acquaint a person with the machinery before he can be taught to repair motors, so is it necessary for the pioneers of culture to be acquainted with the elements of culture. 6.6. Democratic Function The great benefit of the study of sociology lies in its democratic function. India has now become a republic but, owing to lack of any democratic sense in the masses, social maladies such as prejudice, selfishness, deceit, chicanery, and so on, are prevalent. The country’s greatest need at the moment is character, as has been stressed repeatedly by national leaders. While on the one side this character implies a selfless tendency, on the other, it does not lose sight of tolerance, benevolence, understanding, planning, and so on, all of which are very important. The study of sociology can introduce a proper viewpoint in this direction. 7. SOCIOLOGY AND OTHER SCIENCES 7.1. Sociology and Other Social Sciences There are other social sciences, in addition to sociology; which study society. Among them are psychology, anthropology, history, economics, and so on. Comte considers these other sciences useless since society cannot be broken into parts and studied. In Comte’s opinion, society is a totality and its study should also be done as a whole. In this way, sociology is the sole social science, according to Comte, but sociologists today do not agree with Comte’s theory. Actually, the structure of society is so vast and complex that a general science that studies it in its entirety must be supplemented by special sciences, which study its parts. Sociology synthesizes the other social sciences but it is at the same time an individual science having its own individual viewpoint. According to Ward, sociology definitely does synthesize other social sciences, but it is a synthesis in which the individual social sciences lose their separate existence and form or create a novelty. Sorokin, too, looks upon sociology as an independent science. M01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_CH01.indd 12 6/4/2014 12:45:26 PM  Introduction to Sociology  |   13 7.2. Sociology and Psychology Sociology studies society, while psychology studies human behaviour. In the words of Thouless, psychology is the positive science of human experience and behaviour. In this way, the scopes of sociology and psychology coincide to quite some extent and both are positive sciences. Both are factual and both employ scientific methods. Both have lesser capacity of prediction. In both, it is difficult to maintain objectivity. 7.2.1. Difference between Sociology and Psychology Difference in Attitude Maclver writes about sociology: ‘It is difference of attitude in regard to a common material.’ The attitude of psychology is individualistic and that of sociology is social. Difference in Units The unit of psychology is an individual, while sociology regards the society as a unit. In this way, the psychologist studies man as an individual in interaction with his culture and geograph- ical environment. On the other hand, the sociologist studies man as a part of society. Difference in Methods The methods of sociology and psychology are not identical. They differ from each other. 7.2.2. Relation between Psychology and Sociology Sociology and psychology have much in common and enjoy an intimate relationship. Without understanding human psychology, it is more or less impossible to understand the interrelations and activities related to human beings. In much the same way, many of the profound secrets of psychology remain, so there is a need for the knowledge of social relationships, behaviours, and activities. 7.3. Sociology and Anthropology A. L. Kroeber calls sociology and anthropology twin sisters. Social relations between sociology and anthropology are closer than those between anthropology and political science. 7.3.1. Three Parts of Anthropology Anthropology can be divided into three parts as follows: 1. Physical anthropology: It studies the characteristics of human anatomy, from which is derived the knowledge of human races and of the origin of human being. This study ben- efits sociology. M01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_CH01.indd 13 6/4/2014 12:45:26 PM  14  |   Sociology for Nurses 2. Social and cultural anthropology: According to a committee of the Royal Anthro- pological Institute, UK, social anthropology deals with the behaviour of man in social situations. 3. Prehistoric archaeology: It studies the cultures of prehistoric period. Using them as a standard for comparison, the sociologist facilitates his understanding of the present social structure. 7.3.2. Difference between Sociology and Anthropology Difference of Subject Matter The subject matters of sociology and anthropology differ. Physical anthropology studies the subtle anatomical characteristics, whereas sociology concerns itself with their influence upon social relationships. Methods Attitude Subject matter Figure 1.5 Difference between Sociology and Anthropology Difference of Attitude Kluckhohn says, ‘The sociological attitude has tended towards the practical and the present; the anthropological towards pure understanding and the past.’ Difference of Methods As a result of studying different subject matters from different viewpoints, sociology and anthropology differ from each other in their respective methods. Sociology makes use of docu- ments, statistics, survey, and so on. Social anthropology resorts in the main to the functional method, in which the person conducting the research actually goes to live in the society he is to study. Sociology and anthropology are not only different but are related too. Table 1.2 highlights the relationship between these two fields. M01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_CH01.indd 14 6/4/2014 12:45:26 PM  Introduction to Sociology  |   15 Table 1.2 Relation between Sociology and Anthropology Sociology Anthropology Mainly a study of modern communities Mainly a study of ancient communities Makes use of documents and the statistical Makes use of the functional method method In additional to studying social problems, Studies social problems but does not make it makes suggestions for their solutions. suggestions for their solution. Methods of social science Methods of natural science Limited study of anatomical characteristics Detailed study of anatomical characteristics Is concerned with the influence of anatomical Is not concerned with the influence of anatomical features upon social relationships features upon social relationships Study of influence of races upon social Profound study of races; no concern with their relationships effect upon social relationships Special individual study of various aspects Study of society as a whole and problems of society Besides discovering social facts, it also guides Does not guide their change 7.4. Sociology and Economics Defining economics, Fairchild, Buck, and Slesinger write, ‘Economics is the study of man’s activities devoted to obtaining the material means for the satisfaction of his wants.’ According to this definition, economics is the study of economic relations. Economic relationships bear a close relation to social activities and relationships. On the other hand, social relationships are also affected by economic relationships. Due to this close relation some sociologists have treated economics as a part of sociology. Table 1.3 Difference between Sociology and Economics Sociology Economics Sociology studies social relationships Economics studies economic relationships Sociology comprehends the whole society The scope of economics is comparatively in its scope restricted Sociology has a comprehensive viewpoint Economics studies relations and activities only from the economic viewpoint Sociology studies society. Its unit is the group The unit of economics is the individual and it mainly studies his/her economic aspect The methods of sociology differ from those In economics, induction, deduction, and so on, of economics are used M01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_CH01.indd 15 6/4/2014 12:45:26 PM  16  |   Sociology for Nurses 7.4.1. Difference between Sociology and Economics Sociology and economics differ from each other in respect of subject matter, scope, viewpoint, methods, and so on (Table 1.3). Thus, economics is an independent science whose relation to sociology is one of mutual assistance. 7.5. Sociology and History History studies the activities of human race. Paul Barth has said that the history of cultures and institutions is of help in the understanding of sociology and in the collection of its material. Sociology assists in the study of society. Nowadays, history is also being studied from the sociological viewpoint. The philosophy of history is also proving very useful for sociology. In this way, sociology and history are closely related. 7.5.1. Difference between History and Sociology History Is Concrete, While Sociology Is Abstract According to Park, in the sense that history is concrete, sociology is the abstract science of human experience and human nature. History presents a chronological description of incidents, cultures, and so on, but sociology attempts to discover their cause and general principles. Sociology and History Have Different Perspectives As a rule, history studies those incidents that are peculiar or unusual. Sociology studies those incidents that are frequently repeated. History describes incidents taking place at a definite place and time. Sociology strives to discover universal laws and is not related to particular spatio-temporal incidents. They Have Different Interests History generally studies incidents that happened in the past. Sociology is interested in past inci- dents only inasmuch as they can render some assistance in understanding the present societies. 7.6. Sociology and Political Science Pointing out the close relation between sociology and political science, Barnes has written, ‘The most significant thing about sociology and modern political theory is that most of the changes which have taken place in the political theory in the last thirty years have been along the line of develop- ment suggested and marked out by sociology.’ Actually, the knowledge of sociology is necessary to understand the problems of political science because political problems also have a social aspect. 7.6.1. Problems Common to Sociology and Political Science The law of the state has a profound influence on society. It is by means of law that the government changes and improves society but it is necessary to keep in view the customs, traditions, and racial norms of the country while formulating laws. The problem of deciding upon the form of govern- ment is best explained by taking recourse to both sociology and political science. The problem M01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_CH01.indd 16 6/4/2014 12:45:27 PM  Introduction to Sociology  |   17 of determining the government’s policy is also common to both. Similarly, the study of customs, behaviour, institutions, values, and so on, is common to both sociology and political science. As sociology and political science are two different subjects, they have differences as well. Table 1.4 explains these differences. Table 1.4 Difference between Sociology and Political Science Sociology Political Science Science of society Science of government or political society Study of organized and disorganized Study of only organized communities communities Study of all kinds of social relationships Study of only political relationships Study of all forms of society Study of only the political society Study of the means of social control Study of only those means of control that are recognized by government 7.7. Sociology and Biology According to N.G. Miller, our ideas of what sort of progress is possible or desired for man depends in part at least upon our views of his nature, his manner of organization, and the method by which he bears with the rest of nature. In this way, the study of biology is neces- sary for the study of sociology. It is not possible to determine the models and limits of man’s social progress without being acquainted with his physical capacities, qualities, shortcomings, and limitations. Biology presents us with this very knowledge. It studies man’s original and biological development, describes his development, sexual, anatomical and personal peculiari- ties, and formulates principles for his adjustments to the environment. The Darwinian theory of evolution is just one such principle that has been used in sociology to good advantage. Besides, human ecology is based upon biological ecology. Genetics, which is of major importance in sociology, is also a branch of biology. 7.7.1. Limits of Biological Principles in Social Sphere However, biological principles can be applied the social sphere only up to certain limits. An indiscriminate application beyond these limits can lead to drastic consequences. It is indicating towards this fact that Ginsberg has cautioned against the too facile application of biological cat- egories to social facts and, in particular, a tendency to over-emphasize the purely racial factors in social evolution or change. 8. MEDICAL SOCIOLOGY Medical sociology is a specialized branch of sociology which studies health, healthy behav- iour and health institutions. Previously, disease and its treatment were considered the problems of medical sciences alone, but medical sociologists have declared that in diseases and health problems, the role of social and psychological factors is very significant. Similarly, it is very important to find out the role of behavioural and cultural factors in the causation of diseases. M01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_CH01.indd 17 6/4/2014 12:45:27 PM  18  |   Sociology for Nurses Estimate the rural health To establish the Uses of medical Find out the interdependence sociology social factors Find out the customs, traditions, and beliefs Figure 1.6 Uses of Medical Sociology 8.1. Uses of Medical Sociology ❑❑ To estimate the rural health status of the individual and the community. ❑❑ To find out the social factors in the causation of communicable diseases like sexual dis- eases, TB/AIDS, and so on. ❑❑ To find out the customs, traditions, beliefs, and other cultural patterns that affect the health of a particular community. ❑❑ To establish the interdependence of medical and social sciences. The meaning of social pathology is to understand conditions, such as poverty, crime, beggary, and so on. The study of diseases and social factors responsible for their causation may also be included in this. The study and survey of accidents, heart diseases, diabetes, asthma, cancer, and so on, come under the subject matter of social medicine. 9. HOSPITAL SOCIOLOGY The study of hospital, patients, medical and nursing personnel, and organizations of health care and services are included in hospital sociology. The hospital has become an indispensable part of society. In addition to in-patients, a large section of the society is indirectly related to the hospital as outdoor patients. Hence, it is essential that the hospital should be studied in its entire social perspective. The following may be included in the subject matter of hospital sociology: ❑❑ Social structure of the hospital ❑❑ Medical and nursing professionals ❑❑ Hospital and nursing (as an industry) ❑❑ Specialization in medical services ❑❑  atient–doctor, nurse–patient, nurse–doctor, nurse–patient’s relatives, and other interper- P sonal relations within the hospital M01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_CH01.indd 18 6/4/2014 12:45:27 PM  Introduction to Sociology  |   19 ❑❑ Medico-social work ❑❑ Consumer Protection Act ❑❑ Medical ethics, nursing code of conduct, and social etiquette ❑❑ Role of patients and their relatives in the hospital 10. SOCIO-CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS IN SOCIOLOGY 10.1. Education It is an established fact that education improves health status. Education of women especially plays an important role in the health behaviour of the people. Educated societies or states have low maternal mortality rate (MMR) and infant mortality rate (IMR). 10.2. Political Structure Policies, rules, and regulations about health and their implementation depend upon the political structure of a country. A positive political system improves the health conditions of the citizens. Strong political will and democratic pattern always support the well-being of the people. Education Political structure Occupation Demographic structure Cultural beliefs Social environment Figure 1.7 Socio-cultural and Economic Aspects in Sociology 10.3. Occupation The financial position of an individual or family affects its health conditions. If an individual is unemployed, he or she cannot afford to spend much on health prevention and promotion. Poor families are more susceptible to diseases. In illness, they feel stressed for lack of money. 10.4. Economic Status Nations that have a sound economic status or financial strength can spend more on health; therefore citizens of developed countries have a higher life expectancy and better health status. 10.5. Demographic Structure Demography is directly related to the health conditions of the people. Male–female ratio, popu- lation of children, youth and older people, density of population, and so on, affect and deter- mine the health status. M01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_CH01.indd 19 6/4/2014 12:45:27 PM  20  |   Sociology for Nurses 10.6. Cultural Beliefs Cultural beliefs and values regarding food, living, housing, habits, personal hygiene, and so on, affect the lifestyle of an individual and community. Lifestyle has greater impact on health. A healthy and positive lifestyle enhances health promotion. 10.7. Social Environment It covers the wide area of social health. Social health is related to positive maternal environment and positive human environment. 11. METHODS OF SOCIOLOGY The major methods of investigation of social phenomena used by sociology are the following: ❑❑ Questionnaire method ❑❑ Schedule method ❑❑ Interview method ❑❑ Case study method ❑❑ Participant observation ❑❑ Social survey ❑❑ Statistical method 11.1. Questionnaire Method In social research the questionnaire method is used comprehensively. In the questionnaire method, as is evident from its name, a list of selected questions is compiled. These questions throw light upon the different aspects of the problem. Usually, the questions have a ‘Yes/No’ response format and the informant has merely to reject the wrong answer. The questionnaire method, however, has sev- eral difficulties. Often, while answering the question, people prevaricate. Sometimes, the questions are so framed that they become ambiguous and are interpreted differently by the observer and the informant. Quite often, the questions are answered without grasping their full significance. Notwith- standing these difficulties, the questionnaire method is by far the most popular in social research. 11.2. Schedule Method The schedule method resembles the questionnaire method inasmuch as it is also a list of ques- tions, the answer to which supplies the data. But these questionnaires are taken by the observer to the informant and the answers filled in by this method have a greater minuteness of detail. How- ever, compared to the questionnaire method, this one involves more time, energy and money. 11.3. Interview Method In the interview method, evidently enough the observer faces the informant and questions him across the table, noting down the information that the questions elicit. This certainly does obtain much useful information but simultaneously becomes plagued by the defect that much of the information that the informant can offer indirectly cannot be expected in a direct interview. M01_SOCIOLOGY_FOR_NURSES_5269_CH01.indd 20 6/4/2014 12:45:27 PM  Introduction to Sociology  |   21 In fact, much of the success of the observer depends upon his individual ability. If the informant shows hesitation because the information is being transcribed, a tape recorder can be used. Methods of sociology Statistical Schedule Social Questionnaire survey Participant Interview observation Case study Figure 1.8 Methods of Sociology 11.4. Case Study Method The case study is a form of qualitative analysis involving very careful and complete observation of a person, a situation, or an institution. This method may be defined as an all-inclusive and inten- sive study of an individual in which the investigator brings to bear all his inquisitive methods, or as a systematic gathering of enough information about a person to allow one to understand how he or she functions as a unit of society. Burgess calls this method the ‘social microscope’. In this method, a schedule or questionnaire relating to the problems of the people who are to be studied is prepared and laws are formulated by generalizing the answers to these questions. This method clarifies the latent meaning of numerals and is therefore complementary to a statistical study. 11.5. Participant Observation As is evident from the name, in the participant observation method, the observer participates with the people whom he is observing. This gives him the opportunity to come into direct contact with the people who are to provide him this information. This method provides much detailed information along w