Organization of the Body PDF

Organization of the Body College of Pharmacy Department of Clinical Pharmacy  Objectives At the end of the chapter the students should be able to: Know the organization of the Body (cell...

Organization of the Body College of Pharmacy Department of Clinical Pharmacy  Objectives At the end of the chapter the students should be able to: Know the organization of the Body (cells, tissues, organs & systems) Chemical level, Cellular level, Tissues, Organs & Organs systems Know different Organ systems (integumentary system, nervous, excitatory, reproductive, skeletal, muscular, endocrine system etc.) Know the Cranial cavity and vertebral canal & Other cavities Directional terms & Planes and sections 14-Sep-24 2  Objectives To know the Basic life processes (Metabolism, Responsiveness, Movement, Growth, Differentiation, Reproduction) To know the Homeostasis, Control of homeostasis, Homeostatic Imbalances, Homeostatic mechanisms. To know the Negative Feedback & Positive Feedback Regulation To know the Compartments for Body Fluids & Homeostasis and body fluids To know Interstitial fluid and body function 14-Sep-24 3 Organization of the Body 14-Sep-24 4 Organization of the Body 14-Sep-24 5  Chemical level Atoms: the smallest unit of matter Essential atoms for life include carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), and sulfur (S) Molecules: two or more atoms joined together Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Glucose 14-Sep-24 6  Cellular level Molecules combine to form cells Cells are the basic structural and functional units of an organism Many kinds of cells in the body e.g., muscle cells, nerve cells, epithelial cells, etc. 14-Sep-24 7  Tissues Tissues: are groups of cells that are similar in structure and function In adult vertebrates, there are four primary tissues: Epithelial Connective Muscle Nerve Tissue All preform different bodily functions, thus are different cells 14-Sep-24 8  Organs Organs: are combinations of different tissues that form a structural and functional unit Any organ that is essential to life is called a vital organ e.g., Heart: Pumps blood throughout the body Liver: Removes toxins from the blood, produces chemicals that help in digestion Lungs: Supplies oxygen to the blood and removes CO2 from blood Brain: The control center of the body 14-Sep-24 9  Organ systems Organ systems are groups of organs that cooperate to perform the major activities of the body 14-Sep-24 10 Body systems 14-Sep-24 11 Body systems 14-Sep-24 12 Body cavities 14-Sep-24 13  Cranial cavity and vertebral canal Cranial cavity Formed by the cranial bones Protects the brain Vertebral canal Formed by bones of vertebral column Contains the spinal cord Meninges Layers of protective tissue that line the cranial cavity and vertebral canal 14-Sep-24 14  Thoracic cavity Also called the chest cavity Formed by Ribs Muscles of the chest Sternum (breastbone) Vertebral column (thoracic portion) 14-Sep-24 15  Thoracic cavity Within the thoracic cavity Pericardial cavity: Fluid-filled space that surround the heart Pleural cavity: Two fluid-filled spaces that that surround each lung 14-Sep-24 16  Abdominopelvic cavity Extends from the diaphragm to the groin Encircled by the abdominal wall and bones and muscles of the pelvis Divided into two portions: Abdominal cavity: Stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small and large intestines Pelvic cavity: Urinary bladder, internal organs of reproductive system, and portions of the large intestine 14-Sep-24 17  Other cavities Oral (mouth) cavity: Tongue and teeth Nasal cavity: nose Orbital cavities: eyeball Middle ear cavities: Small bones of the middle ear Synovial cavities: Joints 14-Sep-24 18 Methods of dividing the abdominopelvic cavity 14-Sep-24 19  Directional terms 14-Sep-24 20  Directional terms Directional terms: Used to describe the position of one structure to another e.g., Superior/Inferior (Cephalic/Caudal) Anterior/Posterior (Ventral/Dorsal) Medial/Lateral Intermediate: Between Ipsilateral/Contralateral Proximal/Distal Superficial/Deep 14-Sep-24 21  Common directional terms Anterior: Nearer to the front of the body Posterior: Nearer to the back of the body Superior: Toward the head Inferior: Away from the head 14-Sep-24 22  Common directional terms Proximal: Nearer to the attachment of a limb to the trunk Distal: Farther from the attachment of a limb to the trunk Lateral: Farther from the midline Medial: Nearer to the midline 14-Sep-24 23  Planes and sections Imaginary flat surfaces that pass through the body parts Sagittal plane: A vertical plane that divides the body into right and left sides Midsagittal plane divides body into equal right and left sides Parasagittal plane divides body into unequal right and left sides 14-Sep-24 24  Planes and sections Frontal or coronal plane: Divides the body or an organ into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions Transverse plane: Divides the body or an organ into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions Also called cross-sectional or horizontal plane 14-Sep-24 25  Planes and sections Oblique plane: Passes through the body or an organ at an angle Between transverse and sagittal plane Between transverse and frontal plane Sections: Cut of the body made along a plane 14-Sep-24 26 Example of how planes would cut the brain 14-Sep-24 27 Combining Form Combining form Meaning Medical Term Meaning Abdomin/o Abdomen Abdominal Related to abdomen Anter/o Front Anterior Located in the front Cervic/o Neck Cervical Pertaining to the neck Chondr/o Cartilage Hypochondriac Under the cartilage of ribs Coccyg/o Coccyx, tailbone Coccygeal Pertaining to coccyg Lapar/o Abdomen Laparascopy Visual examination of abdomen Later/o Side Lateral Pertaining to side Mediastin Mediastinum Mediastinal Pertaining to mediastinum Poster/o Back Posterior Located in the back portion of a structure Sacr/o Sacrum (five fused bones in Sacral Pertaining to sacrum lower back) 14-Sep-24 28 Exercise Exercise Which system secretes hormones that are carried by blood to other organs…………………………………………. Which system moves air into and out of the body………………………………….. Which system produce urine and send it out of the body…………………………….. Which system supports the body and helps it move…………………………… 14-Sep-24 30 Exercise What is the name of cavity located within the bones of the hip Answer---- What is the name of cavity located within the skull Answer---- What is the name of cavity located within the chest Answer---- 14-Sep-24 31 Exercise What is the medical term for pertaining to the back Answer---- What is the medical term for pertaining to the front Answer---- What is the medical term for plane that divides the body into an upper and lower part Answer---- 14-Sep-24 32 Exercise What is the medical term for plane that divides the body into right and left parts Answer---- What is the medical term for plane that divides the body into front and back parts Answer---- 14-Sep-24 33  Basic life processes Distinguish living from non-living things Six important life process Metabolism Responsiveness Movement Growth Differentiation Reproduction 14-Sep-24 34  Basic life processes Metabolism: Sum of all biochemical processes of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems Catabolism or the breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler components Anabolism or the building up of complex chemical substances from smaller, simpler components Responsiveness: Ability to detect and respond to changes in the internal and external environment Decrease in body temperature Responding to sound Nerve (electrical signals) and muscle cells (contracting) 14-Sep-24 35  Basic life processes Movement: Occurs at the intracellular, cellular, organ levels Organs, cells, and tiny subcellular structures Leg muscles move the body from one place to another Growth: Increase in number of cells, size of cells, tissues, organs, and the body. Single cell to multicellular complex organism Due to an increase in existing cells, number of cells, or both In bone growth materials between cells increase 14-Sep-24 36  Basic life processes Differentiation: Process a cell undergoes to develop from a unspecialized to a specialized cell Cells have specialized structures and functions that differ from precursor cells Stem cells give rise to cells that undergo differentiation Reproduction: Formation of new cells for growth, repair, or replacement, or the production of a new individual Formation of new cells (growth, repair, or replacement) Production of a new individual 14-Sep-24 37  Homeostasis Equilibrium of the body’s internal environment produced by the interaction of organ systems and regulatory processes (feedback systems). Homeostasis is a dynamic condition in response to changing conditions. The two body systems that largely control the body’s homeostatic state: Nervous system Endocrine system Example Blood glucose levels range between 70 and 110 mg of glucose/dL of blood Whole body contributes to maintain the internal environment within normal limits 14-Sep-24 38  Control of homeostasis Homeostatic imbalances occur because of disruptions from the external or internal environments. Homeostasis is regulated by the nervous system and endocrine system, acting together or independently. The nervous system detects changes and sends nerve impulses to counteract the disruption. The endocrine system regulates homeostasis by secreting hormones. Whereas nerve impulses cause rapid changes, hormones usually work more slowly. Examples: CO2, O2, temperature, PH, blood pressure, … 14-Sep-24 39 14-Sep-24 40  Homeostasis Homeostasis is constantly being disrupted Physical insults: Intense heat or lack of oxygen Changes in the internal environment: Drop in blood glucose due to lack of food Physiological stress: Demands of work or school Disruptions: Mild and temporary (balance is quickly restored) or Intense and Prolonged (poisoning or severe infections) 14-Sep-24 41  Homeostatic Imbalances Disruption of homeostasis can lead to disease and death Disorder is a general term for any change or abnormality of function Disease is a more specific term for an illness characterized by a recognizable set of signs and symptoms A local disease is one that affects one part or a limited region of the body A systemic disease affects either the entire body or several parts 14-Sep-24 42  Homeostatic Imbalances Disease is a more specific term for an illness characterized by a recognizable set of signs and symptoms Signs are objective changes that a clinician can observe and measure; e.g., fever or rash Symptoms are subjective changes in body functions that are not apparent to an observer; e.g., headache or nausea Diagnosis is the art of distinguishing one disease from another or determining the nature of a disease; a diagnosis is generally arrived at after the taking of a medical history and the administration of a physical examination 14-Sep-24 43  Homeostatic mechanisms Basic components of control mechanisms Sensor mechanism: specific sensors detect and react to any changes from normal Receptor Body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition Sends input to the control center Nerve ending of the skin in response to temperature change 14-Sep-24 44  Homeostatic mechanisms Integrating, or control center: information is analyzed and integrated, and then, if needed, a specific action is initiated Brain Sets the range of values to be maintained Evaluates input received from receptors and generates output command Nerve impulses, hormones Brains acts as a control center receiving nerve impulses from skin temperature receptors 14-Sep-24 45  Homeostatic mechanisms Effector mechanism: effectors directly influence controlled physiological variables Receives output from the control center Produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition Found in nearly every organ or tissue Body temperature drops the brain sends and impulse to the skeletal muscles to contract Shivering to generate heat 14-Sep-24 46  Homeostatic mechanisms Feedback: process of information about a variable constantly flowing back from the sensor to the integrator Negative Feedback systems Reverses a change in a controlled condition Regulation of blood pressure (force exerted by blood as it presses again the walls of the blood vessels) Positive Feedback systems Strengthen or reinforce a change in one of the body’s controlled conditions Normal child birth 14-Sep-24 47 Negative Feedback: Regulation of Blood Pressure External or internal stimulus increase BP Baroreceptors (pressure sensitive receptors) Detect higher BP Send nerve impulses to brain for interpretation Response sent via nerve impulse sent to heart and blood vessels BP drops and homeostasis is restored Drop in BP negates the original stimulus 14-Sep-24 48 Positive Feedback Systems: Normal Childbirth Uterine contractions cause vagina to open Stretch-sensitive receptors in cervix send impulse to brain Oxytocin is released into the blood Contractions enhanced and baby pushes farther down the uterus Cycle continues to the birth of the baby (no stretching) 14-Sep-24 49 Example of homeostasis: fluid balance in the body Compartments for Body Fluids Intracellular Extracellular Interstitial Plasma 14-Sep-24 50  Homeostasis and body fluids Maintaining the volume and composition of body fluids are important Body fluids are defined as dilute, watery solutions containing dissolved chemicals inside or outside of the cell Intracellular Fluid (ICF) Fluid within cells Extracellular Fluid (ECF) Fluid outside cells Interstitial fluid is ECF between cells and tissues 14-Sep-24 51  ECF and Body Location Blood Plasma: ECF within blood vessels Lymph: ECF within lymphatic vessels Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): ECF in the brain and spinal cord Synovial fluid: ECF in joints Aqueous humor and vitreous body: ECF in eyes 14-Sep-24 52  Interstitial fluid and body function Cellular function depends on the regulation of composition of interstitial fluid Composition of interstitial fluid changes as it moves Movement back and forth across capillary walls provide nutrients (glucose, oxygen, ions) to tissue cells and removes waste (carbon dioxide) 14-Sep-24 53  Positional and Directional terms Position/direction Description Example Anterior Front side The nose is on the anterior of the head Posterior Back side The heel is on the posterior side of the foot Inferior Below The liver is inferior to the left lung Superior Above The stomach is superior to the intestine Lateral Side The ears are lateral to the mouth Medial Middle The heart is in the medial area of the chest Distal Far The distal end of the thigh bone (femur) is at the knee Proximal Near The proximal end of the thigh bone (femur) is at the hip Deep Away from the surface The stab wound penetrated deep into the skin Superficial On the surface Superficial veins can be seen on the surface of the skin Supine Facing up The patient lies supine during an examination of the abdomen Prone Facing down The backbones are examined with the patient in the prone position 14-Sep-24 54 14-Sep-24 55