PHYS1200 Human Anatomy & Physiology Notes PDF

PHYS1200 - Human Anatomy & Physiology Notes Module 1: Organization of the Body (Chapter 1) Human Anatomy & Physiology: Anatomy and physiology are branches of biology concerned with the form and functions of the body. Gross Anatomy: Is described as what we can see with only our eyes, prior...

PHYS1200 - Human Anatomy & Physiology Notes Module 1: Organization of the Body (Chapter 1) Human Anatomy & Physiology: Anatomy and physiology are branches of biology concerned with the form and functions of the body. Gross Anatomy: Is described as what we can see with only our eyes, prior to the invention of microscopic anatomy. Microscopic Anatomy: Cytology - the branch of biology dealing with the morphology, structure, ultrastructure, life cycle, and pathology of cells. Histology - the microscopic study of tissues and organs through sectioning, staining, and examining those sections under a microscope. Characteristics of Life: Autopoiesis: Living organisms are self-organized and self-maintaining. Cell Theory: If it is made up of one or more cells, it is alive. Metabolism: Sum total of all physical and chemical reactions occurring in the living body. Subcategories of Anatomy: Developmental anatomy - The study of the process by which animals and plants grow and develop. Pathological anatomy - diseased body Systemic anatomy - body systems (cardiac, respiratory, urinary, etc.) Physiology: Organism involved — human or plant physiology Organizational level — molecular or cellular physiology Systemic function — respiratory physiology, neurophysiology, or cardiovascular physiology Levels of Organization: Chemical: Organization of chemical structures separates living material from nonliving material Organization of atoms, molecules, and macromolecules results in living matter—a gel called cytoplasm Cells need to live so our body can survive When we have multiple cells die, it can lead to death in the body, if all our cells die then we would be dead Organelle: Chemical structures organized to form organelles that perform individual functions Dozens of organelles have been identified, including: Mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, Endoplasmic reticulum Cellular: Each cell has a nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm within a limiting membrane Cells differentiate to perform unique functions Organ: Organs represent discrete and functionally complex operational units Each organ has a unique size, shape, appearance, and placement in the body System: System level involves varying numbers and kinds of organs arranged to perform complex functions Organism: The living human organism is greater than the sum of its parts All of the components interact to allow the human to survive and flourish Anatomical Position: The anatomical position is a standard body orientation that serves as a reference point for describing the body's anatomy: The body is standing upright and facing forward The arms are at the sides of the body with the palms facing forward Body erects with arms at sides, palms forward The legs are straight and parallel, with the feet flat on the ground Head and feet pointing forward The head and torso are upright The shoulders are in neutral rotation The elbows are extended The fingers are extended The thumbs are adducted with the pad of each thumb facing forward The eyes are open Anatomical Position and Bilateral Position: Bilateral Symmetry: - Bilateral symmetry confers balanced proportions - Remarkable correspondence of size and shape between body parts on opposite sides of the body Ipsilateral structures are on the same side of the body Contralateral structures are on opposite sides of the body Anatomical Directions/Directional Terms: Superior and inferior Superior: “toward the head”; “upper”; “above” Inferior: “lower”; “below” Anterior and posterior Anterior: “front”; “in front of” Posterior: “back”; “in back of” Medial and lateral Medial: “toward the midline of the body” Lateral: “toward the side of the body”; “away from the body’s midline” Proximal and distal Proximal: “toward or nearest the trunk of the body”; “nearest the point of origin of one of its parts” Distal: “away from or farthest from the trunk or the point of origin of a body part” Superficial and deep Superficial: “nearer the surface” Deep: “farther away from the body surface” Practice Terms: Directional Meaning Example Term A person lying face up is in the supine lying face up supine position. A person lying face down is in prone lying face down the prone position. superior / The nose is superior (or above or higher up cranial cranial) to the chin.  Directional Meaning Example Term The knees are inferior to the inferior below or lower down pelvis. below or lower down - toward the tail bone from The pelvis is caudal to the caudal higher up stomach. The sternum is medial to the medial toward the midline shoulders. The ears are lateral to the lateral toward the side nose. The skin is superficial to the superficial toward the body surface heart. deep toward the body core The heart is deep to the ribs. anterior / The toes are anterior (or front or toward the front ventral ventral) to the heel. posterior / The spine is posterior (or back or toward the back dorsal dorsal) to the sternum. for limbs only: closer to the shoulder (upper limb); The elbow is proximal to the proximal closer to the hip (lower limb) wrist. for limbs only: further from the shoulder (upper distal The toes are distal to the knee. limb); further from the hip (lower limb)  Directions and Planes of the Body Anatomical Directions: Terms Related to Organs Lumen o Hollow area of many organs of the body Central and Peripheral o Central: “near the center” o Peripheral: “around the boundary” Medullary and Cortical o Medullary: refers to an inner region or core of an organ o Cortical: refers to an outer region or layer of an organ Basal and Apical (Apex) o Basal: refers to the base or widest part of an organ o Apical (Apex): refers to the narrow tip of an organ Body Planes and Sections: Sagittal planes o Any lengthwise plane running from front to back and top to bottom (divides body into right and left) (back to front) Coronal planes o Any lengthwise plane running from side to side and top to bottom (divides body into anterior and posterior) Transverse planes o Any crosswise plane that divides the body or any of its parts into upper and lower parts (horizontal plane, divides your superior and inferior) Body Cavities: Dorsal Cavities - Cranial cavity (Brain) - Spinal cavity (Spinal Cord) Ventral Cavities - Thoracic cavity (upper core) o Right and left pleural cavities o Mediastinum Abdominopelvic Cavity (lower core) - Abdominal cavity (upper portion) - Pelvic cavity (lower portion) (Ex. Bladder, Reproductive Organs, Part of the Large Intestine) Abdominopelvic Regions : - Right hypochondriac region - Epigastric region - Left hypochondriac region - Right lumbar region Nine Regions of the Abdominopelvic Cavity: - Umbilical region - Left lumbar region - Right iliac (inguinal) region - Hypogastric region - Left iliac (inguinal) region Ex. Patient came into the Emergency Department with pain in the LUQ Body Regions: Axial subdivision o Head o Neck o Torso, or trunk, and its subdivisions Appendicular subdivision Upper extremity and subdivisions Lower extremity and subdivisions Specific Body Regions: Inferior Posterior Homeostasis – Chapter 2: Homeostasis: Homeostasis describes the relatively constant states maintained by the body Examples: o Temperature regulation o Regulation of blood carbon dioxide level o Regulation of blood glucose level *Regular Body Temperature – 36.1° - 37.1° * Homeostatic Control Mechanisms: Devices for maintaining or restoring homeostasis by self-regulation through feedback control loops Basic components of control mechanisms o Sensor mechanism o Integrating, or control, center o Effector mechanism o Feedback Negative Feedback in Control Systems: Is inhibitory Stabilizes physiological variables Produces an action that is opposite to the change that activated the system Is responsible for maintaining homeostasis Is much more common than positive feedback control systems Positive Feedback in Control Systems: Is stimulatory Amplifies or reinforces the change that is occurring Tends to produce destabilizing effects and disrupt homeostasis Brings specific body functions to swift completion Chapter 3 – Chemistry Of Life Elements of Compounds: Matter: Matter is anything that takes up space and can be weighed. Element: A pure substance made of only 1 type of atom that can be broken down. Further into other substances. *there are 26 elements in the human body* Compound: A substance made of two of more different elements that have been chemically joined. Mineral Elements in the Cytoplasm: Major o Oxygen (atomic # 8) o Hydrogen (atomic # 1) o Carbon (atomic # 6) Minor o Iron (atomic # 26) o Manganese (atomic # 25) o Silicon (atomic # 14) Atoms: Atomic structure: Atoms contain several different kinds of subatomic particles; the most important are: Protons (p) – within nucleus Neutrons (n) – within nucleus Electrons (e) – outside the nucleus Properties of Atoms: Atomic number Number of protons in the nucleus Mass number Number of protons plus number of neutrons Energy levels Octet rule Bohr Model: Exhibits electrons in concentric circles, showing the relative distances of electrons from the nucleus Number and arrangement of electrons determine whether an atom is chemically stable An atom with eight electrons, or four pairs of electrons, in the outermost energy level is chemically stable Energy Levels of Five Common Elements Chemical Bonds: Chemical reaction Molecule Compound Chemical bonds (Chemical) o Two types unite atoms into groupings, such as crystal and molecules § Ionic or electrovalent, bond § Covalent bond Energy Levels:  Ionic Bonds: Hydrogen Bonds: Result from unequal charge distribution on molecules Form when electrons are unequally shared o Polar molecules Occur between a hydrogen bonded to an O, N, or F and another hydrogen bonded to an O, N or F Covalent Bonds:  Chemical Reactions: Involve the formation or breaking of chemical bonds Four basic types of chemical reactions ae involved in physiology: o Synthesis reaction o Decomposition reaction o Exchange reaction o Reversible reaction o Chemical Reactions video Metabolism: § Catabolism: o Chemical reactions that break down complex compounds into simpler ones and release energy o Ultimately, the end products of catabolism are carbon dioxide, water, and other waste products to simpler ones and release energy § Anabolism: o Chemical reaction responsible for anabolism is dehydration synthesis (condensation) Properties of water: Polarity: Allows water to act as an effective solvent in the body o Ionizes substances in solution High specific heat: Enables the body to maintain a relatively constant temperature High heat of vaporization: Allows the body to dissipate excess heat Water: is a solvent Acids and Bases: Acids: Substances that release a hydrogen ion (H+) when in solution—proton donors Bases: Electrolytes that dissociate to yield hydroxide ions (OH–) or other electrolytes that combine with hydrogen ions (H+) pH Scale: A pH of 7 indicates neutrality (equal amounts of H+ and OH−) A pH less than 7 indicates acidity A pH higher than 7 indicates alkalinity Biomolecules – Chapter 4 Organic Molecules: The term organic describes compounds that contain C—C or C—H bonds 4 major groups of organic substances: o Carbohydrates o Lipids o Proteins o Nucleic acid Organic Molecules: Carbohydrates: Commonly called sugars and starches Important Organic Molecules: o Monosaccharides o Disaccharides and polysaccharides Monosaccharides (simple sugar) o Glucose o Fructose o Galactose o Ribose Disaccharides (simple sugar) o Two sugar molecules joined together The Formation of Sucrose: Lipids: Water-insoluble (non-polar) organic molecules: Critically important biological compounds Major roles include: o Energy source o Structural role o Integral parts of cell membranes Lipids do not dissolve in water Triglycerides or Fats: Building blocks of triglycerides are glycerol (the same for each fat molecule) and fatty acids (different for each fat and determine the chemical nature) o Types of fatty acids: Saturated and unsaturated Saturated Fats Unsaturated Fats - Meats, butter, talo, lard, dairy - Vegetable oils products - Liquid at room temperature - Solid at room temperature - Increases levels of “GOOD” - Increases levels of “BAD” cholesterol cholesterol (high-density lipoprotein) (low-density lipoprotein) - High-density lipoprotein, or HDL, - Low density lipoprotein clogs arteries “grabs” LDL and escorts it to the liver where LDL is broken down and eventually removed from the body *Saturated fats are ideal for cooking, while unsaturated fats are ideal for dressings* Types of Fatty Acids: Phospholipids: One end of the phospholipid is water soluble (hydrophilic); the other end is fat soluble (hydrophobic) Phospholipids may form double layers, called bilayers, that make up cell membranes Phospholipid Bilayer: Proteins: Most abundant organic compounds Amino acids: Amino acids consist of a carbon atom, an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a functional group, or radical (R) Essential amino acids Nonessential amino acids 21 amino acids, only 8 can produce Nucleotides: Nucleotides have other important roles in the body Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) o ATP often called the energy currency of cells o ATP is split into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and an inorganic phosphate group by special enzymes ATP Cell Structure – Chapter 5 Lesson 5.1: Cells, Cell Membranes, and Organelles Functional Anatomy of Cells: The typical cell o Also called a composite cell o Varies in size; all are microscopic o Varies in structure and function Cell Structure: Cell Structures: Cytoplasm Plasma Membrane Nucleus Study website Cytoplasm: Fluid Mosaic Model: Molecules of the cell membrane are arranged in a sheet The mosaic of molecules is fluid This model illustrates that the molecules of the cell membrane form a continuous sheet Integral Membrane Proteins (IMPs): A cell controls what moves through the membrane by means of integral membrane proteins (IMPs) embedded in the phospholipid bilayer Organelles: Cytoplasm Organelle Function Factory Part Nucleus DNA Storage Room where the blueprints are kept Mitochondria Energy Production Powerplant Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Lipid Production; Detoxification Accessory Production – makes (SER) decorations for the toy, etc. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Protein Production; in particular Primary Production line – makes (RER) for export out of the cell the toys Golgi Apparatus Protein Modification and export Shipping Department Peroxisome Lipid Destruction; contains Security and waste removal oxidative enzymes Lysosome Protein Destruction Recycling and Security Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER (RER): Ribosomes synthesize proteins, which move toward the Golgi apparatus and eventually leave the cell Smooth ER (SER) Removes and stores calcium ions (Ca++) from the cell’s interior Video Ribosomes: Many are attached to the RER, and many lie free, scattered throughout the cytoplasm Ribosomes in the ER make proteins for “export” or to be embedded in the plasma membrane o Free ribosomes make proteins for the cell’s domestic use Golgi Apparatus: Processes protein molecules from the ER Lysosomes: Made of microscopic membranous sacs that have “pinched off” from Golgi apparatus The cell’s own digestive system Mitochondria: § Made up of microscopic sacs § The “power plants” of cells  § Each mitochondrion has a DNA molecule Structure of the Nucleus: Consists of a nuclear envelope surrounding nucleoplasm Contains DNA, the heredity molecules Cell Extensions: Microvilli Cilia and flagella o Cilia are shorter and more numerous than flagella; all cilia have sensory functions o Flagella are found only on human sperm cells Cell Extensions: Probiotics are good bugs Feed the bugs, whole foods, very good for intestinal system and intestinal tract, are overall health all comes from our gut Cell Function – Chapter 6 Lesson 6.1: Passive and Active Transport Processes Movement of Substances Through Cell Membrane: Passive transport processes do not require any energy expenditure of the cell membrane o Diffusion: A passive process o Molecules spread through membranes Diffusion Through a Membrane: Passive Transport Processes: Simple diffusion Molecules cross through the phospholipid bilayer Solutes permeate the membrane; therefore, we call the membrane permeable Osmosis Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane; limits diffusion of at least some of the solute particles Simple Diffusion Osmosis: Facilitated Diffusion: A special kind of diffusion Movement of molecules is made more efficient by the action of transporters embedded in a cell membrane o Transport substances down a concentration gradient o Energy required comes from the collision energy of the solute Facilitated Diffusion: Channel – Mediated Passive Transport: Channels are specific: They allow only one type of solute to pass through o Gated channels may be open or closed (or inactive): They may be triggered by any of a variety of stimuli o Channels allow membranes to be selectively permeable o Aquaporins are water channels that permit rapid osmosis Membrane Channels: Facilitated Diffusion: Carrier-Mediated Passive Transport: o Carriers attract and bind to the solute, change shape, and release the solute out the other side of the carrier o Carriers are usually reversible, depending on the direction of the concentration gradient Membrane Carrier: Passive Transport Processes: Move substances down their concentration gradients, thus maintaining equilibrium and homeostatic balance Types of passive transport: o Simple o Facilitated diffusion (channels and carriers) Osmosis is a special example of channel-mediated passive transport of water Active Transport Processes: Require the expenditure of metabolic energy by the cell Transport by pumps Pumps are membrane transporters that move a substance against its concentration gradient: The opposite of diffusion Examples: o Calcium pumps o Sodium-potassium pumps Calcium Pump Sodium Potassium Pump Active Transport Processes: Transport by vesicles allows substances to enter or leave the interior of a cell without actually moving through its plasma membrane Endocytosis: The plasma membrane “traps” some extracellular material and brings it into the cell in a vesicle Bulk Transport by Vesicles Two Types of Endocytosis: Phagocytosis o Large particles are engulfed by the plasma membrane and enter the cell in vesicles; the vesicles fuse with lysosomes, which digest the particles Pinocytosis o Fluid and the substances dissolved in it enter the cell Exocytosis: Process by which large molecules can leave the cell even though they are too large to move out through the plasma membrane Large molecules are enclosed in membranous vesicles and then pulled to the plasma membrane by the cytoskeleton, where the contents are released Exocytosis also provides a way for new material to be added to the plasma membrane Cell Metabolism - Role of Enzymes: Enzymes are chemical catalysts that reduce the activation energy needed for a reaction Enzymes regulate cell metabolism Enzymes as Catalysts: Catabolism: Catabolism is the set of metabolic pathways that breaks down molecules into smaller units Cellular respiration is an important example of cell catabolism Three pathways: o Glycolysis o Citric acid cycle (Kreb’s) o Electron transport system (ETS) Glycolysis: Pathway in which glucose is broken apart into two pyruvic acid molecules to yield a small amount of energy Includes many chemical steps, each regulated by specific enzymes Anaerobic (requires no oxygen) Occurs within cytosol (outside the mitochondria) VIDEO Citric Acid (Krebs) Cycle: Pyruvic acid (from glycolysis) is converted into acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA) and enters the citric acid cycle after losing carbon dioxide (CO2) and transferring some energy to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) The citric acid cycle is a repeating (cyclic) sequence of reactions that occurs inside the inner chamber of a mitochondrion; acetyl splits from CoA and is broken down to yield waste CO2 and energy (in the form of energized electrons), which is transferred to ATP, NADH, and the reduced form of flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2) VIDEO Electron Transport System: Pyruvic acid (from glycolysis) is converted into acetyl CoA and enters the citric acid cycle after losing CO2 and transferring some energy to NADH Citric acid cycle is a repeating sequence of reactions that occurs inside the inner chamber of a mitochondrion Protons flow back into the inner chamber through pump molecules in the cristae, and their energy of movement is transferred to ATP Low-energy electrons coming off the ETS bind to oxygen and rejoin their protons to form water (H2O) VIDEO In Summary: Glucose is broken down (catabolism) to produce ATP Summary of Cellular Respiration: Anabolism: o Protein synthesis is a central anabolic pathway in cells Cell Growth and Development – Chapter 7 Lesson 7.1: Cell Growth and Development 1. Discuss how genes control protein synthesis. Growth and Reproduction of Cells: Cell growth and reproduction are the most fundamental of all living functions Constitute the cell life cycle o Cell growth depends on the use of genetic information in DNA to make the structural and functional proteins needed for cell survival o Cell reproduction ensures that genetic information is passed from one generation to the next Protein Synthesis: Protein synthesis is a central anabolic pathway in cells Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) o A double-helix polymer (composed of nucleotides) that functions to transfer information, encoded in genes, to direct the synthesis of proteins o Gene: A segment of a DNA molecule that consists of approximately 1000 pairs of nucleotides and contains the code for synthesizing one ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecule, which then may be translated into one polypeptide Introduction to Tissues – Chapter 8 Lesson 8.1: Introduction to Tissues Introduction to Tissues: Tissue: Group of similar cells that perform a common function Matrix: Nonliving intercellular material Principal Types of Tissue: Classified by structure and function o Epithelial tissue Ex. The outer layer of the skin (epidermis), the lining of your intestines. o Connective tissue Tissue that supports, protects and gives structure to other tissues and organs in the body. o Muscle tissue Muscle tissue is a soft tissue that allows for movement by contracting and shortening. It's made up of long, thin cells called muscle fibers that are arranged in bundles or layers ° Skeletal muscle Long, cylindrical fibers with many nuclei. These muscles are attached to bones and are responsible for voluntary movement. ° Cardiac muscle Short, branched fibers with a single nucleus. These muscles are found in the heart and contract to pump blood. ° Smooth muscle Short, spindle-shaped fibers with a single nucleus. These muscles are involuntary and line the inside of some organs, such as the intestines and lungs o Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It is responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities. Nervous tissue consists of two cells: nerve cells or neurons and glial cells, which helps transmit nerve impulses and also provides nutrients to neurons. Extracellular Matrix (ECM): Complex, nonliving fluid material between cells in a tissue Some tissues have a large amount of ECM; other tissues have hardly any o Different kinds of components give ECM in different tissues a variety of characteristics o VIDEO Tissue Types – Chapter 9 Lesson 9.1: Different Types of Tissue Epithelial Tissue: Two types o Membranous o Glandular Functions o Protection o Sensory functions o Secretion o Absorption o Excretion Generalizations About Epithelial Tissue: Limited amount of matrix material Membranous type attached to a basement membrane Avascular Cells are in close proximity, with many desmosomes and tight junctions Capable of reproduction Classifications of Epithelial Tissue: Membranous (covering or lining) epithelium Classification based on cell shape o Squamous (flat & plate like) o Cuboidal (cube shape) o Columnar (more height than width) o Pseudostratified columnar (one layer, oddly shaped cells) Simple Epithelium: Simple squamous epithelium o One-cell layer of flat cells o Permeable to many substances Simple cuboidal epithelium o One-cell layer of cube-shaped cells o Found in many glands and ducts Simple columnar epithelium o Single layer of tall, column-shaped cells o Cells often modified for certain functions, such as goblet cells (secretion), cilia (movement), and microvilli (absorption) o Often lines hollow visceral structures Pseudostratified columnar epithelium o Columnar cells of differing heights o All cells rest on basement membrane but may not reach the free surface above o Cell nuclei at odd and irregular levels o Line the air passages and segments of the male reproductive system o Motile cilia & mucus are important modifications Simple Squamous Lining of the Lungs Simple Columnar Epithelium Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium Areolar – a small space Stratified Epithelium: Stratified cuboidal epithelium o Two or more rows of cells are typical o Basement membrane is indistinct o Located in sweat gland ducts and pharynx Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium Multiple layers of flat, squamous cells Cells filled with keratin Covers outer skin on body surface shows keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. This is a photomicrograph of thick skin, showing cell becoming progressively flattened and scalelike as they approach the surface and are lost. The outer surface (keratinized layer) of this epithelial sheet contains many flattened cells that have lost their nuclei. Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium Lines the vagina, mouth, and esophagus Free surface is moist Primary function is protection Glandular Epithelium: Specialized for secretory activity Exocrine glands discharge secretions into ducts Endocrine glands are “ductless” glands; they discharge secretions directly into the blood or interstitial fluid Structural Classification of Exocrine Glands: Multicellular exocrine glands are classified by the shape of their ducts and the complexity of their duct system Shapes include tubular and alveolar Simple exocrine glands: Only one duct leads to the surface Compound exocrine glands: Have two or more ducts The major structural types of exocrine glands. Exocrine Glands in the Stomach: shows exocrine glands in the stomach. The inset shows a scanning electron micrograph of exocrine glands, called gastric glands, in the lining of the stomach. These glands produce gastric juice—a mixture of water, mucus, enzymes, acid, and other substances. Connective Tissue: General functions o Connects o Supports o Transports o Protects General structure o Extracellular matrix (ECM) predominates in most connective tissues and determines their physical characteristics o ECM consists of a fluid, gel, or solid matrix, with or without extracellular fibers (collagenous, reticular, and elastic) and proteoglycans or other compounds that thicken and hold the tissue together Four Main Types of Connective Tissue: Fibrous (connective tissue proper) o Loose fibrous (areolar) o Adipose o Reticular o Dense ° Irregular ° Regular (collagenous and elastic) Bone o Compact bone o Cancellous bone Cartilage o Hyaline o Fibrocartilage o Elastic Blood Fibrous Connective Tissue: Loose fibrous (areolar) connective tissue o Intercellular substance is prominent and consists of collagenous and elastic fibers loosely interwoven and embedded in soft viscous ground substance o Several kinds, notably fibroblasts and macrophages, also mast cells, plasma cells, fat cells, and some white blood cells o Function: Stretch, flexible connection Adipose Tissue: Contains mostly fat cells (adipocytes) and some fibroblasts, macrophages, and mast cells Functions o Acts as food (energy) reserve, support, protection, insulation (white fat), and heat generation (brown fat) o Produces the hormone leptin, which signals the brain how much fat is stored Reticular Tissue: Forms the framework for the spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow Consists of a network of branching reticular fibers with reticular cells overlying them Functions o Defense against microorganisms and other injurious substances o Reticular meshwork filters out injurious particles, and reticular cells phagocytose them Dense Fibrous Tissue: Matrix consists mainly of densely packed fibers and has relatively few fibroblasts o Irregular: Fibers intertwine irregularly to form a thick mat o Regular: Bundles of fibers are arranged in regular parallel rows ° Collagenous: Mostly collagenous fibers in the ECM ° Elastic: Mostly elastic fibers in the ECM Tendons and Ligaments: shows tendons and ligaments. A shows an artist’s illustration of the tendons and ligaments of the shoulder, which are examples of dense fibrous connective tissue. B shows the same area in a photograph from a cadaver dissection. Note the many strong connections needed to keep this important joint functioning properly. Lesson 9.2: Blood and Muscle Tissue: Bone (Osseous) Tissue: Uniquely hard and strong connective tissue type o Mature cells of bone: Osteocytes, which are embedded in a calcified matrix o Inorganic component of matrix accounts for 65% of total bone tissue Bones are the organs of the skeletal system. They provide support and protection for the body and serve as attachment points. Functions of Bone Tissue: Support Protection Point of attachment for muscles Reservoir for minerals Support blood-forming tissue A lattice made of bone also serves as the support for red bone marrow, which produces new blood cells. Certain bones, called membrane bones (for example, the flat bones of the skull), are formed within membranous tissue. Other bones, such as the long bones (for example, the humerus), are formed indirectly through replacement of cartilage in a process called endochondral ossification. Compact Bone Tissue: Osteon (haversian system) o Structural unity of bone o Spaces for osteocytes called lacunae o Matrix present in concentric rings called lamellae o Canaliculi are canals that join the lacunae with the central (haversian) canal What are the three types of cells in compact bone tissue? ° Osteocytes — mature ° inactive bone cells — osteoblasts ° active bone — forming cells; and ° osteoclasts—bone-destroying cells) Mature bone can grow and be reshaped by the simultaneous activity of osteoclasts, which break down and remove existing bone tissue, while osteoblasts lay down new bone. The Haversian canals surround blood vessels and nerve fibers throughout the bone and communicate with osteocytes. The canals and the surrounding lamellae are called a Haversian system (or an osteon). A Haversian canal generally contains one or two capillaries and nerve fibers Compact bone forms most of the hard shell of a bone. Cancellous (spongy) bone forms a network of hard beams of bone tissue inside many bones. Types of Bone Tissues  shows compact bone tissue. Photomicrograph Compact Bone Tissue: of ground compact bone. Many wheel-like structural units of bone, known as osteons, or haversian systems, are apparent in this section. Cancellous (Spongy) Bone Tissue: Trabeculae: Thin beams of bone o Supports red bone marrow ° Red bone marrow is also called myeloid tissue, a type of reticular tissue that contains stem cells that produce various types of blood cells Called spongy bone because of its spongelike appearance The lattice of trabeculae also gives internal support to the bone, much as the crisscrossing pattern of the roof trusses of a building help support the weight of a roof. shows cancellous bone tissue. Photomicrograph of cancellous (spongy, or trabecular) bone. The pink-stained mineralized bone tissue forms a lattice of irregular beams, or trabeculae, that support the softer reticular tissue of the bone marrow. The darkly stained nuclei of osteocytes (OC) are visible, as are the dark boundaries (arrows) of mineralized bone layers, or lamellae. Cartilage Tissue: Chondrocytes are the only cell type present; these cells produce fibers and the ground substance of cartilage ° Chondrocytes, like bone cells, are found in lacunae Cartilage is avascular; nutrition of cells depends on diffusion of nutrients through matrix Perichondrium: Membrane that surrounds the cartilage Why does cartilage heal slowly after injury? ° Because nutrient transfer to the cells is slow in cartilaginous tissue Hyaline Cartilage Tissue: Appearance is shiny and translucent o Most prevalent type of cartilage o Located on the ends of articulating bones What does “hyaline” mean? ° Hyaline cartilage takes its name from the Greek word hyalos, or “glass.” The name is appropriate because the small amount of collagen in the matrix gives hyaline cartilage a shiny, translucent appearance. Fibrocartilage: Strongest and most durable type of cartilage Found in intervertebral disks and pubic symphysis Serves as shock-absorbing material between bones at the knee (menisci) In fibrocartilage, the matrix is rigid and filled with a dense packing of strong white collagen fibers. Elastic Cartilage Tissue: Contains many fine elastic fibers Provides strength and flexibility Where is this type of cartilage found? ° In the external ear and voice box, or larynx Blood Tissue: A liquid tissue Contains neither ground substance nor fibers o Composition of whole blood o Liquid fraction (plasma) is the matrix: 55% of total blood volume o Formed elements contribute 45% of total blood volume ° Red blood cells (erythrocytes) ° White blood cells (leukocytes) ° Platelets (thrombocytes) Blood is perhaps the most unusual connective tissue because it exists in a liquid state and contains neither ground substance nor fibers. Functions of Blood: Transportation Regulation of body temperature Regulation of body pH White blood cells destroy bacteria How is blood tissue formed? ° Circulating blood tissue is formed in the red bone marrow by a process called hematopoiesis; the blood-forming tissue is sometimes called hematopoietic tissue ° Blood performs many body transport functions, including movement of respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide), nutrients, and waste products. Types of Muscle Tissue: Skeletal (striated voluntary muscle tissue) Smooth (nonstriated, involuntary, or visceral muscle tissue) Cardiac (striated involuntary muscle tissue) Cardiac tissue makes up the wall of the heart. Striated = Striped Skeletal Muscle: shows skeletal muscle. Note the striations of the muscle cell fibers in this longitudinal section. Smooth Muscle shows smooth muscle. Photomicrograph of a longitudinal section of smooth muscle. Note the central placement of nuclei in the spindle- shaped smooth muscle fibers Nervous Tissue: Special characteristics o Excitability o Conductivity o Organs o Brain o Spinal cord o Nerves Functions of nervous tissue include rapid regulation and integration of body activities. What makes rapid communication possible? (Functionally, rapid communication is possible because nervous tissue has much more developed excitability and conductivity characteristics than any other type of tissue.) Actual nerve tissue is ectodermal in origin and consists of two basic kinds of cells, neurons and neuroglia.  Nervous Tissue: Cell Types Neuron: Conducting unit of the system o Cell body, or soma o Processes ° Axon (single process): Transmits nerve impulse away from the cell body ° Dendrite (one or more): Transmits nerve impulse toward the cell body and axon Neuroglia: Special connecting, supporting, and coordinating cells that surround neurons There are many types of neuroglia, all with different structures and functions. In addition to physically supporting neurons, neuroglia is known to have important coordinating roles in the nervous system. Nervous Tissue shows nervous tissue. Photomicrograph of multipolar neurons surrounded by smaller neuroglia in a smear of spinal cord tissue. All the large neurons show characteristic somas, or cell bodies, and multiple cell processes. Test 1: Unit ONE (chapters 1-9) Topics to be covered on the test: Levels of organization in the body Body cavities Abdominal regions Abdominopelvic Quadrants Planes Anatomical position, ipsilateral position, bilateral symmetry Molecules, atoms Bohr Model: Atomic mass, weight, number Organelles Electrons are arranged in Major tissues concentric circles around Body systems the nucleus. Directional terms The number and Homeostasis arrangement of electrons Positive/ negative feedback determine chemical Bonds stability. Essential/non-essential amino acids Atoms are stable with 8 DNA electrons (or 4 pairs) in Phospholipid bilayer the outermost shell. Diffusion/ osmosis Active/ passive transport Channel mediated/carrier mediated transport Characteristics of tissue Homeostasis: constant state of balance What to Study: (key tips) Body Cavities: Dorsal ° Cranial Cavity ° Spinal Cavity Ventral ° Thoracic Cavity Right & Left Pleural Cavities Mediastinum ° Abdominal Cavity Upper Portion ° Pelvic Cavity Abdominopelvic Cavity Lower Portion Abdominopelvic Quadrants: ° Right Upper Quadrant ° Left Upper Quadrant RUQ LUQ ° Right Lower Quadrant ° Left Lower Quadrant RLQ LLQ  Right Left Hypochondriac Epigastric Nine REGIONS of the Abdominopelvic Cavity: Hypochondriac Region Region Right Hypochondriac Region Region Right Lumbar (flank) Region Right Iliac (inguinal) Region Epigastric Region Right Lumbar Left Lumbar Umbilical (flank) Umbilical Region (flank) Region Region Hypogastric (pubic) Region Region Left Hypochondriac Region Left Lumbar (flank) Region Left Iliac (inguinal) Region Right Iliac Hypogastric Left Iliac (inguinal) (pubic) (inguinal) Region Region Region Anatomical Directions/Directional Terms: Superior: toward the head; upper; above Inferior: lower; below The Anatomical Position: Anterior: front; in front of Body upright, facing Posterior: back, in back of forward Medial: Arms at sides, palms toward the midline of the body forward Lateral: Legs straight, feet flat toward the side of the body; away from the body’s midline Head and torso upright Proximal: Shoulders neutral toward or nearest the trunk of the body; nearest the point Elbows extended, of origin of one of its parts fingers straight Distal: Thumbs adducted, away from or farthest from the trunk or the point of origin facing forward of a body part Superficial: Bilateral Symmetry: nearer the surface Balanced body Deep: proportions. farther away from the body surface Similar size and shape Lumen: on both sides. Hollow area of many organs of the body Central: Ipsilateral structures: are on near the center the same side of the body Peripheral: around the boundary Contralateral structures: are Medullary: on opposite sides of the body refers to an inner region or core of an organ Cortical: refers to an outer region or layer of an organ Basal: Refers to the base or widest part of an organ Apical (Apex): refers to the narrow tip of an organ Atoms: Atomic structure - Atoms contain several different kinds of subatomic particles: ° Protons (p) – within nucleus Negative Feedback: (Positive) ° Neutrons (n) – within nucleus ° Slows down or stops a change (Neutral) (inhibitory) ° Helps keep things stable (like body ° Electrons (e) – outside the nucleus (Negative) temperature or blood sugar). ° Does the opposite of what triggered Octet Rule: the change. ° Maintains balance (homeostasis). Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve a full outer ° More common than positive feedback shell of 8 electrons (except for hydrogen and helium, which aim for 2). in the body. * A full outer shell provides more stability to the atom, if less than 8, compound is more reactive * Positive Feedback: ° Boosts or encourages a change Molecules: (stimulatory) Carbohydrates ° Increases the effect of a change. ° Can disrupt balance and cause Lipids (Triglycerides or Fats) o Water-insoluble (non-polar) instability. ° Helps complete specific processes o Energy Source quickly (like childbirth or blood Proteins (Building Block) clotting). o Breaks down into Amino Acids o 21 Amino Acids – 8 Essential Nucleic Acid Atomic Mass: Number of protons plus number of neutrons Atomic Weight: Average mass of all isotopes of an element, found on periodic table Atomic Number (#): Number of Protons Body Planes: Sagittal Plane: Divides the body into right and left (front to back). Coronal Plane: Divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) (side to side). Transverse Plane: Divides the body into upper and lower parts (horizontal).  Organelles: Organelle Function Factory Part Nucleus DNA Storage Room where the blueprints are kept Mitochondria Energy Production Powerplant Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Lipid Production; Detoxification Accessory Production – makes (SER) decorations for the toy, etc. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Protein Production; in particular Primary Production line – makes the (RER) for export out of the cell toys Golgi Apparatus Protein Modification and export Shipping Department Peroxisome Lipid Destruction; contains Security and waste removal oxidative enzymes Lysosome Protein Destruction Recycling and Security Cell Extensions: Microvilli Cilia - shorter and more numerous than flagella; all cilia have sensory functions Flagella - found only on human sperm cells Protein Synthesis: Central process for building proteins in cells. DNA: A double helix made of nucleotides that carries genetic information. A gene is a DNA segment that codes for RNA, which is then translated into a polypeptide. RNA: A single-stranded molecule that carries the genetic code from DNA to make proteins. Types include mRNA (messenger), tRNA (transfer), and rRNA (ribosomal) Levels of Organization: Organism Cellular Chemical System Organ Organelle  Passive Transport: Moves substances from high to low concentration (down their gradient). Doesn’t need energy from the cell. Types: o Simple diffusion: Substances move directly across the membrane. o Facilitated diffusion: Substances need help from special proteins (channels or carriers). o Osmosis: Movement of water through a special protein channel. Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP) from the cell. Moves substances against their gradient (from low to high concentration). Uses pumps, which are special proteins that push substances the opposite way of diffusion. Exocytosis: Principal Types of Tissue: Classified by structure and function Process where large molecules o Epithelial tissue exit the cell, despite being too big Ex. The outer layer of the skin (epidermis), the lining of for the plasma membrane. your intestines. o Connective tissue Endocytosis: Tissue that supports, protects and gives structure to other tissues and organs in the body. Phagocytosis: Large o Muscle tissue particles are engulfed by Muscle tissue is a soft tissue that allows for movement the plasma membrane by contracting and shortening. It's made up of long, thin and digested in vesicles. cells called muscle fibers that are arranged in bundles or Pinocytosis: Fluid and layers dissolved substances ° Skeletal muscle enter the cell. Long, cylindrical fibers with many nuclei. These muscles are attached to bones and are responsible for voluntary movement. ° Cardiac muscle Short, branched fibers with a single nucleus. These muscles are found in the heart and contract to pump blood. ° Smooth muscle Diffusion: Short, spindle-shaped fibers with a single The movement of molecules from an nucleus. These muscles are involuntary and line the area of higher concentration to an inside of some organs, such as the intestines and lungs area of lower concentration until o Nervous tissue equilibrium is reached is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It is responsible for coordinating and controlling many body Osmosis: activities. A type of diffusion where water Nervous tissue consists of two cells: nerve cells or moves across a selectively permeable neurons and glial cells, which helps transmit nerve membrane from a region of lower impulses and also provides nutrients to neurons. solute concentration to higher solute concentration Epithelial Tissue: Fibrous Connective Tissue: Two Types o Membranous Loose (Areolar) Connective Tissue: o Glandular Functions Loosely woven collagen and elastic fibers in o Protection a soft, viscous ground substance o Sensory Functions Contains fibroblasts, macrophages, mast o Secretion cells, plasma cells, fat cells, and some WBCs o Absorption Function: Flexible, stretchable connection o Excretion Adipose Tissue: Classifications of Epithelial Tissue: Mostly adipocytes with some fibroblasts, Membranous (covering or lining) epithelium macrophages, and mast cells Classification based on cell shape Functions: Energy storage, support, o Squamous (flat & plate like) protection, insulation (white fat), heat o Cuboidal (cube shape) generation (brown fat) o Columnar (more height than width) Produces leptin, which regulates fat storage o Pseudostratified columnar (one layer, oddly shaped cells) Reticular Tissue: Simple Epithelium Forms the framework of the spleen, lymph Simple Squamous – Single layer of flat cells, nodes, and bone marrow permeable to many substances. Network of branching reticular fibers with Simple Cuboidal – Single layer of cube-shaped reticular cells cells, found in glands and ducts. Functions: Filters harmful particles; Simple Columnar – Tall, column-shaped cells, reticular cells aid in defense through often modified with goblet cells (secretion), cilia phagocytosis (movement), or microvilli (absorption), lines hollow organs. Dense Fibrous Tissue: Pseudostratified Columnar – Columnar cells of varying heights, touching the basement Densely packed fibers with few fibroblasts membrane but not always reaching the surface; Types: nuclei at different levels. Found in air passages o Irregular: Interwoven fibers form a and male reproductive tract, often with cilia and thick mat mucus. o Regular: Parallel fiber bundles ° Collagenous: Mostly collagen Stratified Cuboidal: fibers Two or more cell layers, indistinct basement ° Elastic: Mostly elastic fibers membrane, found in sweat gland ducts and pharynx. Cancellous (Spongy) Bone: Keratinized Stratified Squamous: Trabeculae: Thin bone beams supporting red bone marrow (myeloid tissue) Multiple layers of flat cells filled with keratin, Spongy appearance: trabeculae provide internal forming the outer skin layer. support like roof trusses Glandular Epithelium: Specialized for secretion Exocrine glands: Discharge secretions into ducts Endocrine glands: Ductless; secrete directly into blood/interstitial fluid Bone (Osseous) Tissue: Cartilage Tissue: Hard, strong connective tissue Chondrocytes (only cell type) produce fibers and with osteocytes in a calcified matrix (65% ground substance inorganic). Lacunae: Spaces for chondrocytes Forms the skeletal system, providing support, Avascular; nutrients diffuse through the matrix protection, and muscle attachment. Perichondrium: Surrounding membrane Slow Healing due to limited nutrient transfer Functions: Types of Cartilage: Support, protection, muscle attachment Mineral reservoir Hyaline Cartilage – Shiny, translucent, most Supports blood-forming tissue (red bone common; found on articulating bone ends marrow) Fibrocartilage – Strongest, found in intervertebral Bone Formation: discs, pubic symphysis, and menisci o Membrane bones (e.g., skull) form Elastic Cartilage – Flexible, found in the external within membranous tissue ear and larynx o Long bones (e.g., humerus) develop via endochondral Blood Tissue: ossification (cartilage replacement) Liquid connective tissue with no ground Compact Bone: substance or fibers Plasma (55%) – Liquid matrix Osteon (Haversian System): Structural unit Formed Elements (45%) – RBCs, WBCs, and of bone platelets o Lacunae: Spaces for osteocytes o Lamellae: Concentric matrix rings Muscle Tissue o Canaliculi: Tiny canals connecting lacunae to the Haversian canal Skeletal (Striated Voluntary) Smooth (Nonstriated Involuntary/Visceral) Bone Cells: Cardiac (Striated Involuntary) – Forms the heart wall Osteocytes – Mature bone cells Osteoblasts – Bone-forming cells Nervous Tissue Osteoclasts – Bone-destroying cells Characteristics: Excitability, Conductivity Bone reshapes through osteoclasts breaking down Organs: Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves tissue while osteoblasts build new bone. Haversian Function: Rapid regulation and integration of body canals house blood vessels and nerves, activities communicating with osteocytes. Cells: Neurons (signal transmission) & Neuroglia (support cells) Highly excitable and conductive, enabling fast communication  Phospholipids: Phospholipids have a hydrophilic end (water- soluble) and a hydrophobic end (fat-soluble). They form bilayers, which make up cell membranes. Phospholipid Bilayer Channel-Mediated Transport: Uses protein channels to allow Amino Acids: specific molecules or ions to pass Amino acids consist of a carbon atom, an through. amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen Channels can be open continuously atom, and a functional group, or radical (R) or gated (open/close in response to signals). Facilitates passive transport (no There are 9 essential amino acids: energy required). Example: Ion channels for Na⁺, K⁺, 1. Histidine or Cl⁻. 2. Isoleucine 3. Leucine Carrier-Mediated Transport: 4. Lysine 5. Methionine Uses carrier proteins that bind to 6. Phenylalanine molecules and change shape to 7. Threonine transport them. 8. Tryptophan Can be passive (facilitated diffusion) 9. Valine or active (requires ATP). Specific to certain molecules like There are 11 non-essential amino acids: glucose or amino acids. Example: Glucose transport via GLUT proteins. 1. Alanine 2. Arginine (conditionally essential) 3. Asparagine 4. Aspartic acid 5. Cysteine (conditionally essential) 6. Glutamic acid 7. Glutamine (conditionally essential) 8. Glycine 9. Proline 10. Serine 11. Tyrosine (conditionally essential) Circulatory System: Transports blood, oxygen, and nutrients throughout the body Composed of the heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), and blood Includes pulmonary and systemic circulation Helps regulate body temperature and pH balance Respiratory System: Responsible for gas exchange (oxygen in, carbon dioxide out) Includes lungs, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli Works with the circulatory system to supply oxygen to the body Involves breathing (inhalation and exhalation) Digestive System: Breaks down food into nutrients for energy and growth Includes mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, and gallbladder Involves mechanical and chemical digestion Absorbs nutrients and eliminates waste Nervous System: Controls body functions and responses to stimuli Composed of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves Includes central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) Communicates through electrical and chemical signals Endocrine System: Produces hormones to regulate bodily functions Includes glands like the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, and pancreas Controls growth, metabolism, reproduction, and stress responses Works closely with the nervous system Skeletal System: Provides structural support and protection for organs Composed of bones, cartilage, ligaments, and joints Produces blood cells in bone marrow - Stores minerals like calcium and phosphorus Muscular System: Enables movement, posture, and heat production Includes skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles Works with the skeletal system for movement Controls voluntary and involuntary movements Immune System: Defends the body against infections and diseases Includes white blood cells, lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow Works with the lymphatic system to transport immune cells Recognizes and eliminates pathogens Lymphatic System: Helps maintain fluid balance and supports immunity Includes lymph nodes, lymph vessels, and the spleen Removes waste and toxins from body tissues Transports white blood cells to fight infections Urinary (Excretory) System: Removes waste and excess fluids from the body Includes kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra Regulates water, electrolyte balance, and blood pressure Filters blood and produces urine Reproductive System: Responsible for producing offspring Male organs: testes, penis, prostate Female organs: ovaries, uterus, fallopian tubes, vagina Regulated by hormones (testosterone, estrogen, progesterone) Ionic Bonds: (strongest bond) Formed between metals and nonmetals. Involves transfer of electrons. Creates charged ions (cations and anions). Example: NaCl (sodium chloride). Covalent Bonds: (sharing) Formed between two nonmetals. Involves sharing of electrons. Can be single, double, or triple bonds. Example: H₂O (water), CO₂ (carbon dioxide). Hydrogen Bonds (Intermolecular): (weakest bond) Weak attraction between hydrogen and electronegative atoms (O, N, F). Important in water, DNA, and proteins. Example: H₂O molecules interacting. Organic Molecules: Carbohydrates (Sugars & Starches): Made of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) in a 1:2:1 ratio. Monosaccharides – Simple sugars (e.g., glucose, fructose). Disaccharides – Two monosaccharides joined (e.g., sucrose, lactose). Polysaccharides – Long chains (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose). Function: Energy storage & structural support. Lipids (Fats, Oils, Waxes): Made mostly of C, H, O but in a different ratio than carbs. Triglycerides – Glycerol + 3 fatty acids (saturated or unsaturated). Phospholipids – Make up cell membranes (hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tail). Steroids – Include cholesterol & hormones (e.g., testosterone, estrogen). Function: Energy storage, insulation, and cell membranes. Proteins (Polypeptides): Made of C, H, O, N, and sometimes S. Amino acids – Building blocks (20 types). Peptide bonds – Link amino acids to form polypeptides. Levels of structure: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary. Function: Enzymes, structural support, transport, immunity. Nucleic Acids (DNA & RNA): Made of C, H, O, N, P. Nucleotides – Building blocks (sugar, phosphate, nitrogen base). DNA – Stores genetic info, double-stranded. RNA – Helps in protein synthesis, single-stranded. Function: Genetic information & protein synthesis.