Untitled Document PDF - Human Anatomy and Physiology

1.​ Difference Between Anatomy and Physiology: ○​ Anatomy is the study of the structure and parts of the body. ○​ Physiology is the study of the function and how the body parts work. (deeper) 2.​ Levels of Organization in the Human Body (simplest to most complex): ○​ Chemical...

1.​ Difference Between Anatomy and Physiology: ○​ Anatomy is the study of the structure and parts of the body. ○​ Physiology is the study of the function and how the body parts work. (deeper) 2.​ Levels of Organization in the Human Body (simplest to most complex): ○​ Chemical level → Cellular level → Tissue level → Organ level → Organ system level → Organism level. 3.​ Characteristics of Life: ○​ Growth: Increase in size and number of cells. ○​ Reproduction: Ability to produce offspring. ○​ Responsiveness: Reacting to changes in the environment. ○​ Movement: Motion of the body or its parts. ○​ Metabolism: Chemical reactions within cells that provide energy. ○​ Homeostasis: Maintaining internal stability. 4.​ Homeostasis: ○​ Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment. ○​ Receptors detect changes in the internal or external environment. ○​ Set point is the normal range or value for a given variable. ○​ Effectors are organs or tissues that act to correct any deviation from the set point. 5.​ Negative vs. Positive Feedback: ○​ Negative feedback: Reduces or reverses the original stimulus. Example: Body temperature regulation. ○​ Positive feedback: Amplifies or increases the original stimulus. Example: Childbirth contractions. 6.​ Axial vs. Appendicular Portions: ○​ Axial portion: Includes the head, neck, and trunk (main body). ​ Cavities in the axial portion: Cranial cavity (brain), spinal cavity (spinal cord), thoracic cavity (lungs, heart), and abdominopelvic cavity (digestive organs, reproductive organs). ○​ Appendicular portion: Includes limbs and the structures that connect them to the axial portion (shoulders and hips). 7.​ Pleural, Pericardial, and Peritoneal Membranes: ○​ Pleural membranes line the lungs. ○​ Pericardial membranes line the heart. ○​ Peritoneal membranes line the abdominal cavity and cover its organs. 8.​ Organ Systems: ○​ Integumentary system: Skin, hair, nails; protects and regulates temperature. ○​ Skeletal system: Bones, cartilage; supports and protects organs. ○​ Muscular system: Skeletal muscles; allows movement. ○​ Nervous system: Brain, spinal cord, nerves; controls and coordinates body activities. ○​ Endocrine system: Glands; produces hormones that regulate body functions. ○​ Cardiovascular system: Heart, blood vessels; circulates blood.  ○​ Lymphatic system: Lymph nodes, spleen; defends the body. ○​ Respiratory system: Lungs, trachea; facilitates gas exchange. ○​ Digestive system: Stomach, intestines; breaks down food and absorbs nutrients. ○​ Urinary system: Kidneys, bladder; removes waste and regulates water balance. ○​ Reproductive system: Ovaries, testes; produces offspring. 9.​ Anatomical Position: ○​ Standing erect, facing forward, arms at the sides, with palms facing forward. 10.​Anatomical Terms: ​ Superior: Above (e.g., head is superior to the neck). ​ Inferior: Below (e.g., stomach is inferior to the heart). ​ Anterior (ventral): Front (e.g., chest is anterior to the back). ​ Posterior (dorsal): Back (e.g., spine is posterior to the chest). ​ Medial: Toward the midline (e.g., nose is medial to the eyes). ​ Lateral: Away from the midline (e.g., ears are lateral to the eyes). ​ Bilateral: Both sides (e.g., two kidneys). ​ Ipsilateral: On the same side (e.g., right arm and right leg). ​ Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment (e.g., shoulder is proximal to the wrist). ​ Distal: Further from the point of attachment (e.g., fingers are distal to the wrist). ​ Superficial (peripheral): Near the surface (e.g., skin is superficial to muscles). ​ Deep: Away from the surface (e.g., lungs are deep to the ribs). 11.​Sagittal, Transverse, and Frontal Sections: ​ Sagittal section: Divides the body into left and right parts. ​ Transverse section: Divides the body into upper and lower parts (cross-section). ​ Frontal section: Divides the body into front and back parts (coronal section). 12.​Cross, Oblique, and Longitudinal Sections: ​ Cross section: Perpendicular cut (usually a transverse plane). ( – ) ​ Oblique section: Cut at an angle. ( / ) ​ Longitudinal section: Lengthwise cut. ( | ) 13.​Nine Regions of the Abdominal Area: ​ Right hypochondriac, epigastric, left hypochondriac. ​ Right lumbar, umbilical, left lumbar. ​ Right iliac, hypogastric, left iliac. 14.​Four Quadrants of the Abdominal Area: ​ Right upper quadrant (RUQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), left lower quadrant (LLQ) Chapter 2 Part 1: Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonds ​ Three Subatomic Particles: ○​ Proton: Positive charge (+1), located in the nucleus. ○​ Neutron: Neutral charge (0), located in the nucleus. ○​ Electron: Negative charge (-1), located in orbitals around the nucleus. ​ Determining Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons: ○​ Protons = Atomic Number ○​ Electrons = Atomic Number (in a neutral atom) ○​ Neutrons = Mass Number - Atomic Number ​ Isotopes: ○​ Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. ○​ Example: Carbon-12 vs. Carbon-14. ​ Isotope Applications in Health: ○​ Radioisotopes used in medical imaging and cancer treatment (e.g., Iodine-131 for thyroid treatment). ​ Electron Shell Capacities: ○​ 1st shell: 2 electrons ○​ 2nd shell: 8 electrons ○​ 3rd shell: 8 electrons (up to 18 in larger atoms) ​ Stable Atom: ○​ An atom is stable when its outermost shell (valence shell) is full. ​ Ionic Bond Formation: ○​ Formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another. ○​ Example: NaCl (Sodium donates an electron to Chlorine). ​ Covalent Bond Formation: ○​ Formed when atoms share electrons. ○​ Example: H₂O (Water molecule). ​ Electronegativity: ○​ The ability of an atom to attract electrons in a bond. ​ Electronegativity and Covalent Bonds: ○​ Polar Covalent Bond: Unequal sharing of electrons (e.g., H₂O). ○​ Nonpolar Covalent Bond: Equal sharing of electrons (e.g., O₂, CH₄). ​ Polarity of Water and Hydrogen Bonds: ○​ Water's partial charges lead to weak hydrogen bonds between molecules. ​ Electrolytes: ○​ Substances that dissolve in water and conduct electricity (e.g., NaCl). ​ Acids vs. Bases: ○​ Acid: Releases H⁺ ions; pH < 7. ○​ Base: Accepts H⁺ ions; pH > 7. ​ pH Scale: ○​ Each whole number change = 10x change in H⁺ concentration. ○​ Example: pH 2 has 100x more H⁺ than pH 4.  ​ Buffers: ○​ Maintain pH stability in biological systems (e.g., bicarbonate in blood). Chapter 2 Part 2: Carbon Chemistry and Macromolecules ​ Carbon Bonds: ○​ Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds, allowing complex molecules. ​ Organic Molecules: ○​ Composed of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), and sometimes Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), and Sulfur (S). ​ Functional Groups: ○​ Groups of atoms that influence molecular function (e.g., hydroxyl, carboxyl). ​ Monomers and Polymers: ○​ Monomers: Single units (e.g., glucose, amino acids). ○​ Polymers: Chains of monomers (e.g., starch, proteins). ​ Chemical Reactions: ○​ Reactants: Substances entering a reaction. ○​ Products: Substances formed. ​ Dehydration Reaction: ○​ Bonds monomers by removing water (H₂O). ​ Hydrolysis Reaction: ○​ Breaks polymers by adding water. ​ Macromolecules: ○​ Carbohydrates: C, H, O ​ Functions: Energy storage, structural support. ​ Examples: Glucose, starch, cellulose. ​ Types: Monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides. ○​ Lipids: C, H, O ​ Functions: Energy storage, membrane structure, signaling. ​ Examples: Fats, oils, phospholipids, steroids. ​ Types: Fatty acids, phospholipids, steroids. ○​ Proteins: C, H, O, N (sometimes S) ​ Functions: Enzymes, structural support, transport. ​ Examples: Hemoglobin, enzymes, antibodies. ​ Structure: ​ Primary: Amino acid sequence. ​ Secondary: Alpha helices & beta sheets. ​ Tertiary: 3D shape. ​ Quaternary: Multiple polypeptides. ​ Peptide Bonds: Link amino acids. ​ Denaturation: Loss of structure due to heat or pH changes. ○​ Nucleic Acids: C, H, O, N, P  ​ Functions: Genetic information storage and transfer. ​ Examples: DNA, RNA. ​ Nucleotide Structure: Phosphate, sugar, nitrogen base. ​ Nitrogen Bases: ​ DNA: A-T, C-G ​ RNA: A-U, C-G Chapter 3 Part 1: The Cell and Its Structures Main Components of a Cell: 1.​ Cell Membrane – Outer boundary that regulates what enters and exits the cell. 2.​ Cytoplasm – Gel-like substance containing organelles and cytosol. 3.​ Nucleus – Control center containing genetic material (DNA). Cell Membrane: Function and Characteristics ​ Function: Regulates transport, provides structure, facilitates communication. ​ Characteristics: Semi-permeable, flexible, composed of a phospholipid bilayer. ​ Composition & Arrangement: ○​ Phospholipids: Form bilayer with hydrophilic heads outward and hydrophobic tails inward. ○​ Proteins: Embedded for transport and signaling. ○​ Cholesterol: Maintains fluidity. ○​ Carbohydrates: Aid in cell recognition. Cellular Structures: Appearance & Function ​ Ribosomes: Small, round; synthesize proteins. ​ Nucleus: Spherical; stores genetic material (DNA) and directs cell activities. ​ Rough ER: Network with ribosomes; synthesizes proteins. ​ Smooth ER: Tubular; synthesizes lipids, detoxifies chemicals. ​ Vesicles: Small sacs; transport substances within and outside the cell. ​ Golgi Apparatus: Stacked membranes; modifies, packages, and ships proteins. ​ Mitochondria: Double-membraned, rod-shaped; generates ATP (energy production). ​ Lysosomes: Small, membrane-bound; contain digestive enzymes to break down waste. ​ Peroxisomes: Similar to lysosomes; break down fatty acids and detoxify harmful substances. ​ Cytoskeleton: Network of fibers; provides shape, movement, and support. Nuclear Components ​ Chromosomes: Condensed DNA, contain genetic instructions. ​ Nuclear Envelope: Double membrane surrounding the nucleus. ​ Nuclear Pores: Openings in the nuclear envelope for molecule exchange. ​ Nucleoplasm: Gel-like substance inside the nucleus. ​ Nucleolus: Dense region within the nucleus; produces ribosomes. Cytoskeletal Elements ​ Microfilaments: Thin fibers, aid in cell movement and support. ​ Microtubules: Hollow tubes, provide shape and serve as tracks for organelle movement. ​ Intermediate Fibers: Provide structural support and resistance to mechanical stress. Cilia & Flagella ​ Cilia: Short, hair-like structures for movement or moving substances along the cell surface. ​ Flagella: Long, whip-like structures for locomotion (e.g., sperm cells). Chapter 3 Part 2: Membrane Transport & Cell Cycle Selective Permeability ​ Definition: The ability of the cell membrane to allow some substances to pass while restricting others. Molecules that Freely Pass ​ Small, nonpolar molecules (Oxygen, CO₂, lipids). ​ Water (via aquaporins). Types of Membrane Transport ​ Diffusion: Passive movement from high to low concentration. ​ Facilitated Diffusion: Passive transport using membrane proteins. ​ Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a membrane. ​ Filtration: Movement due to pressure differences (e.g., kidney filtration). Effects of Solutions on Blood Cells  ​ Hypertonic Solution: Water leaves the cell, causing it to shrink (crenation). ​ Hypotonic Solution: Water enters the cell, causing it to swell and potentially burst (lysis). ​ Isotonic Solution: No net water movement; cell remains stable. Active vs. Passive Transport ​ Passive Transport: No energy required (diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion). ​ Active Transport: Requires ATP (sodium/potassium pump, endocytosis, exocytosis). Sodium/Potassium ATPase Pump ​ Uses ATP to move 3 Na⁺ ions out and 2 K⁺ ions in, maintaining electrochemical balance. Endocytosis vs. Exocytosis ​ Endocytosis: Engulfing substances into the cell. ○​ Phagocytosis: Engulfing solids (cell eating). ○​ Pinocytosis: Engulfing liquids (cell drinking). ○​ Receptor-mediated Endocytosis: Specific molecule uptake. ​ Exocytosis: Expelling substances from the cell via vesicles. Cell Cycle: Purpose & Phases ​ Function: Growth, repair, reproduction. ​ Main Phases: 1.​ Interphase: Growth, DNA replication, preparation for division. 2.​ Mitosis: Division of the nucleus. 3.​ Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm, forming two new cells. Mitosis vs. Meiosis ​ Mitosis: Produces two identical daughter cells (growth & repair). ​ Meiosis: Produces four genetically unique cells (gametes for reproduction). Cellular Metabolism ​ Definition: Cellular metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions that occur within a cell to maintain life. These reactions involve energy transformations that allow cells to grow, reproduce, and respond to their environment. Catabolism vs. Anabolism ​ Catabolism: The breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy (e.g., cellular respiration). ​ Anabolism: The synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring energy (e.g., protein synthesis). Enzymes & Activation Energy ​ Function of an Enzyme: Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy without being consumed. ​ Activation Energy: The minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction. Enzymes lower this energy barrier, allowing reactions to occur more easily. Substrate, Active Site, & Enzyme-Substrate Complex ​ Substrate: The specific reactant molecule an enzyme acts upon. ​ Active Site: The region on the enzyme where the substrate binds. ​ Enzyme-Substrate Complex: The temporary molecule formed when the enzyme binds to its substrate. Factors Affecting Enzymes ​ Cofactors: Inorganic molecules (e.g., metal ions) that assist enzyme activity. ​ Coenzymes: Organic molecules (e.g., vitamins) that help enzymes function. ​ Heat: Increases enzyme activity up to an optimal temperature, beyond which enzymes denature. Feedback Inhibition ​ Definition: A regulatory mechanism where the end product of a metabolic pathway inhibits an earlier enzyme, preventing overproduction. Energy & Its Release  ​ Definition of Energy: The capacity to do work, including chemical, mechanical, and transport work within cells. ​ Energy Storage & Release: Energy is stored in chemical bonds of molecules like glucose. It is released when these bonds are broken during metabolic processes like cellular respiration. ATP & Energy Storage/Release ​ Structure & Function: ATP (adenosine triphosphate) consists of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups. Energy is stored in the phosphate bonds, particularly the bond between the second and third phosphate. ​ ATP Recycling: ATP is regenerated from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) through cellular respiration. Cellular Respiration Overview ​ Function: Converts glucose into ATP, providing energy for cellular processes. Steps in Cellular Respiration 1.​ Glycolysis ○​ Reactants: Glucose, 2 ATP, NAD+ ○​ Products: 2 Pyruvate, 4 ATP (net gain: 2 ATP), 2 NADH ○​ Location: Cytoplasm 2.​ Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle) ○​ Reactants: Acetyl-CoA, NAD+, FAD ○​ Products: CO₂, NADH, FADH₂, ATP ○​ Location: Mitochondrial matrix ○​ ATP Yield: 2 ATP 3.​ Electron Transport Chain (ETC) ○​ Reactants: NADH, FADH₂, O₂ ○​ Products: ATP, H₂O ○​ Location: Inner mitochondrial membrane ○​ ATP Yield: ~34 ATP Role of Electrons & ATP Synthase in the ETC ​ Electrons: Move through the ETC, providing energy to pump protons across the mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton gradient. ​ ATP Synthase: Uses the proton gradient to synthesize ATP from ADP and Pi. Total ATP Yield from Cellular Respiration ​ Overall Yield: 38 ATP per glucose molecule.  Exam 1 Study Guide Chapter 1 ​ What is the difference between anatomy and physiology? ​ List the levels of organization in the human body from simplest to most complex. ​ Identify and describe the characteristics of life. ​ Including growth, reproduction, responsiveness, movement, metabolism, and homeostasis. ​ What is homeostasis and why is it important for survival? ​ Describe the role of receptors, the set point, and effectors in homeostasis. ​ How does negative feedback differ from positive feedback? Provide an example of each. ​ Explain the difference between the axial and appendicular portions of the human body. ​ Identify the location of the cavities found in the axial portion of the human body. ​ Identify the location of the small cavities in the head. ​ Identify what the pleural membranes, the pericardial membranes, and the peritoneal membranes line. ​ For each organ system, identify the organs and structures associated with it, and explain its general function in the human body. ​ Describe anatomical position. ​ Differentiate between the following anatomical terms used to describe the location of a structure relative to another. Use an example for each pair of terms. ​ Superior vs inferior ​ Anterior (ventral) vs posterior (dorsal) ​ Medial vs lateral ​ Bilaterial vs Ipsilateral ​ Proximal vs distal ​ Superficial (peripheral) vs deep ​ Differentiate between a sagittal section, a transverse section, and a frontal section. ​ Differentiate between a cross section, an oblique section, and a longitudinal section. ​ Identify the term and location associated with the 9 regions of the abdominal area. ​ Identify the term and location associated with the 4 quadrants of the abdominal area. Chapter 2 Part 1 ​ Identify the 3 subatomic particles that compose an atom. Include the charge and the location of each subatomic particle in an atom. ​ By using the atomic number and mass number, identify the number of electrons, protons, and neutrons in any given atom. ​ Describe how an isotope if different from a normal atom. (hint: think about the 3 different subatomic particles in an atom). ​ Describe an application of an isotope relating to human health. ​ Identify the number of electrons that the first, second, and third shells of an atom can hold. ​ In regards to electrons in orbitals around the nucleus of an atom, what describes a stable atom? ​ How is an ionic bond formed? Provide an example. ​ How is a covalent bond formed? Provide an example. ​ Explain the term electronegativity. ​ Explain how electronegativity relates to the formation of polar covalent bonds and nonpolar covalent bonds. ​ How does the polarity of a water molecule result in the formation of hydrogen bonds? ​ Describe an electrolyte. ​ How do acids differ from bases? ​ Differentiate between an acid and a base by using pH values and H+ concentration. ​ ​ Explain the significance of a whole number change on the pH scale. ​ Example: How does a pH of 2 compare to a pH of 4 in terms of H+ concentration?  ​ Describe the significance of a buffer, especially in a biological (living) system. Chapter 2 Part 2 ​ Identify the number of bonds a carbon atom can make. ​ Identify the significance of making this number of covalent bonds. ​ Identify the atomic composition of an organic molecule (what atoms compose an organic molecule?) ​ Explain the significance of functional groups in organic compounds. ​ Identify how monomers and polymers are related. ​ Identify the terms reactants and products in relation to a chemical reaction. ​ Be able to identify the reactants and products if given a specific chemical reaction. ​ Identify what occurs in a dehydration reaction. Identify what happens to water in this type of reaction. ​ Identify what occurs in a hydrolysis reaction. Identify what happens to water in this type of reaction. ​ Identify the four categories of macromolecules. ​ In regards to carbohydrates, be able to: ​ Identify the atomic composition ​ Identify the functions ​ Identify examples ​ Differentiate between monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides ​ In regards to lipids, be able to: ​ Identify the atomic composition ​ Identify the functions ​ Identify examples ​ Differentiate between fatty acids, phospholipids, and steroids ​ In regards to proteins, be able to: ​ Identify the atomic composition ​ Identify the functions ​ Identify examples ​ Identify the basic structure an amino acid ​ Identify the significance of a peptide bond ​ Differentiate between a proteins primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure, and quaternary structure. ​ Explain what occurs to a protein during denaturation. Provide two examples of processes that can denature a protein. ​ In regards to nucleic acids, be able to: ​ Identify the atomic composition ​ Identify the functions ​ Identify examples ​ Differentiate between DNA and RNA structurally and functionally ​ Identify the structure of a nucleotide ​ Identify the 4 nitrogenous bases that compose a nucleotide and explain how they pair together Chapter 3 Part 1 ​ Identify the 3 main components of a cell. ​ Describe the function of the cell membrane and its general characteristics. ​ What types of molecules compose it, and how are they arranged? ​ Describe the appearance and function of the following cellular structures: ​ Ribosome, nucleus, rough ER, smooth ER, vesicles, golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisomes, cytoskeleton.  ​ Identify the following components associated with the nucleus: chromosomes, nuclear envelope, nuclear pores, nucleoplasm, and nucleolus. ​ Differentiate between microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate fibers. ​ Describe the function of cilia and flagella. Chapter 3 Part 2 ​ Define the term selective permeability ​ Identify the general types of molecules that can freely move through the cell membrane. ​ Differentiate between diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, and filtration. ​ Describe what happens to a human blood cell when it is placed in a hypertonic solution, hypotonic solution, or an isotonic solution. Be able to explain what is entering or leaving the cell and why it is occurring. ​ Differentiate between active and passive transport. ​ Explain how the sodium/potassium ATPase pump is an example of active transport. ​ Differentiate between exocytosis and endocytosis. ​ Be able to describe the three different types of endocytosis. ​ Describe the function of the cell cycle. ​ Identify the 3 main phases of the cell cycle and describe what occurs in each phase. ​ Differentiate between meiosis and mitosis. Chapter 4 ​ Describe the term cellular metabolism. ​ Differentiate between catabolism and anabolism. ​ Describe the function of an enzyme. ​ Describe what the term activation energy means in regards to how an enzyme functions. ​ Define the term substrate, active site, and enzyme substrate complex. ​ Describe how cofactors, coenzymes, and heat affect enzymes. ​ Explain the role feedback inhibition plays in a metabolic pathway. ​ Define the term energy. ​ Where is energy held in molecules and how is this energy released? ​ In regard to ATP, be able to answer the following questions: ​ Describe how the structure of ATP relates to its ability to store and release energy inside of a cell. ​ Describe how ATP can be recycled. ​ What is the function of cellular respiration? ​ For the following steps in cellular respiration, identify what are the reactants and products, how much ATP is produced, the location the process occurs, and the number of NADH produced. ​ Glycolysis ​ Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) ​ Electron transport chain ​ What is the function of the electrons in the electron transport chain? ​ What is the function of ATP synthase in the electron transport chain? ​ How much total ATP is generated at the end of cellular respiration?