Anatomy and Physiology Textbook PDF

Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology Key Definitions ​ Anatomy – The study of the structure of body parts. ​ Physiology – The study of how body parts function. ​ Histology – The study of tissues under a microscope. Normal Anatomical Position ​ Standing upright, facing forward,...

Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology Key Definitions ​ Anatomy – The study of the structure of body parts. ​ Physiology – The study of how body parts function. ​ Histology – The study of tissues under a microscope. Normal Anatomical Position ​ Standing upright, facing forward, arms at sides, palms forward, feet flat on the ground. ​ Used as a reference point for anatomical terms. Levels of Human Body Organization 1.​ Chemical level – Atoms and molecules. 2.​ Cellular level – Basic structural and functional unit of life. 3.​ Tissue level – Groups of similar cells performing a function. 4.​ Organ level – Two or more tissues working together (e.g., heart, lungs). 5.​ Organ system level – Organs working together (e.g., cardiovascular system). 6.​ Organism level – The entire human body. Human Body Systems & Examples of Organs 1.​ Integumentary – Skin, hair, nails. 2.​ Skeletal – Bones, cartilage, ligaments. 3.​ Muscular – Skeletal muscles. 4.​ Nervous – Brain, spinal cord, nerves. 5.​ Endocrine – Glands (thyroid, adrenal). 6.​ Cardiovascular – Heart, blood vessels. 7.​ Lymphatic/Immune – Lymph nodes, spleen. 8.​ Respiratory – Lungs, trachea. 9.​ Digestive – Stomach, intestines, liver. 10.​Urinary – Kidneys, bladder. 11.​Reproductive – Ovaries, testes. Body Cavities ​ Dorsal cavity – Contains the cranial cavity (brain) and vertebral cavity (spinal cord).  ​ Ventral cavity – Contains the thoracic cavity (heart, lungs) and abdominopelvic cavity (digestive, urinary, and reproductive organs). Body Planes (Sections) 1.​ Sagittal plane – Divides the body into left and right halves. 2.​ Frontal (coronal) plane – Divides the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) halves. 3.​ Transverse plane – Divides the body into top (superior) and bottom (inferior) halves. Positional Terms ​ Supine – Lying face up. ​ Prone – Lying face down. Chapter 4: Tissues Four Basic Tissue Types 1.​ Epithelial tissue – Covers body surfaces and lines cavities. 2.​ Connective tissue – Supports and connects body parts. 3.​ Muscle tissue – Responsible for movement. 4.​ Nervous tissue – Conducts electrical impulses. Epithelial Tissue ​ Simple epithelium – One layer of cells (for absorption, filtration). ​ Stratified epithelium – Multiple layers (for protection). Types of Epithelial Tissue ​ Simple squamous – Flat cells, found in lungs (alveoli) and blood vessels. ​ Mesothelium – Special simple squamous epithelium that lines body cavities. ​ Simple cuboidal – Cube-shaped cells, found in kidney tubules. ​ Simple columnar – Tall cells, found in digestive tract (may have goblet cells). ​ Stratified squamous – Multiple layers, found in skin and esophagus. ​ Keratinized stratified squamous – Has keratin for waterproofing, found in skin. Connective Tissue ​ Basic Features: Matrix (fibers + ground substance), fibroblasts, immune cells. Types of Connective Tissue ​ Areolar connective tissue – Cushions organs, under skin. ​ Reticular connective tissue – Supports lymphoid organs (spleen, lymph nodes). ​ Dense connective tissue – ○​ Regular: Parallel fibers (tendons, ligaments). ○​ Irregular: Random fibers (dermis of skin). Tendons vs. Ligaments ​ Tendons – Connect muscle to bone. ​ Ligaments – Connect bone to bone. Chapter 5: Integumentary System Functions of Skin 1.​ Protection 2.​ Body temperature regulation 3.​ Sensory reception 4.​ Vitamin D synthesis 5.​ Excretion Layers of the Skin 1.​ Epidermis – Outer layer, avascular, contains keratin. ○​ Thick skin (palms, soles) has five layers. ○​ Thin skin (most of body) has four layers. 2.​ Dermis – Connective tissue layer, contains blood vessels and nerves. 3.​ Subcutaneous layer (hypodermis) – Stores fat and insulates. Melanin ​ Skin pigment produced by melanocytes, protects from UV radiation. Chapter 6: Skeletal System Basic Structure of Long Bone ​ Diaphysis – Shaft of the bone. ​ Epiphysis – Ends of the bone. ​ Medullary cavity – Hollow center filled with bone marrow. Bone Classification by Shape ​ Long bones – Femur, humerus. ​ Short bones – Carpals, tarsals. ​ Flat bones – Skull, ribs. ​ Irregular bones – Vertebrae, pelvis. Bone Structure ​ Compact bone – Dense, found in outer layer. ​ Spongy bone – Porous, contains red bone marrow. Bone Cells ​ Osteocytes – Maintain bone. ​ Osteoblasts – Build bone. ​ Osteoclasts – Break down bone. Chapter 8: Joints & Movements Joint Classification ​ Fibrous joints – No movement (e.g., skull sutures). ​ Cartilaginous joints – Slight movement (e.g., intervertebral discs). ​ Synovial joints – Free movement (e.g., shoulder, knee). Movements ​ Flexion – Decrease angle (bending elbow). ​ Extension – Increase angle (straightening elbow). ​ Abduction – Moving away from midline. ​ Adduction – Moving toward midline. ​ Inversion – Turning foot inward. ​ Eversion – Turning foot outward. ​ Supination – Palm up.  ​ Pronation – Palm down. ​ Opposition – Thumb to fingertips. ​ Protraction – Moving forward (jaw). ​ Retraction – Moving back (jaw). ​ Elevation – Lifting up (shoulders shrug). ​ Depression – Moving down. Chapter 9: Muscle System Muscle Properties 1.​ Extensibility – Can be stretched. 2.​ Elasticity – Returns to original shape. Muscle Tissue Types ​ Skeletal muscle – Voluntary, striated, attached to bones. ​ Cardiac muscle – Involuntary, striated, heart. ​ Smooth muscle – Involuntary, non-striated, walls of organs. Skeletal Muscle Structure ​ Epimysium – Surrounds entire muscle. ​ Endomysium – Surrounds individual muscle fibers. ​ Fascicle – Bundle of muscle fibers. Sarcomere Structure ​ Thin filament – Actin. ​ Thick filament – Myosin. ​ Z-line – End of sarcomere. ​ A band – Dark band (thick + thin filaments). ​ I band – Light band (only thin filaments). ​ H band – Center of sarcomere (only thick filaments).