AIA 1005 Introduction to Anthropology & Sociology PDF

AIA 1005 3 Introduction to Anthropology & Sociology THEORIES & RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIOLOGY 1 SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY A theory is a statement of how and why specific facts are related. The goal of sociological theory is to exp...

AIA 1005 3 Introduction to Anthropology & Sociology THEORIES & RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIOLOGY 1 SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY A theory is a statement of how and why specific facts are related. The goal of sociological theory is to explain social behavior in the real world. Theories are based on theoretical paradigm, sets of assumptions that guide thinking and research. Sociologist ask two basic questions: i. What issue should we study? ii. How should we connect the facts? 2 SOCIOLOGICAL META THEORIES There are three general theoretical orientations or perspectives for the study of society: i. Structural-Functionalism perspective ii. Conflict perspective iii. Interactionist perspective 3 4 THE STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE The structural-functional theory is a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. Society includes social structure or institutions like family, education, government, religion and economy. It asserts that our lives are guided by social structures (relatively stable patterns of social behavior). Each social structure has social functions, or consequences, for the operation of society as a whole. 5 Key figures in the development of this paradigm include Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons and Robert Merton. Robert Merton introduced three concepts related to social function: i. Manifest functions – the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern ii. Latent functions – largely unrecognized and unintended consequences iii. Social dysfunctions – undesirable consequences of a social problem for the operation of society (It focuses on stability, thereby ignoring inequalities of social class, 6 race and gender) Therefore, parts of a social system work together to maintain a balance. i. Functions are actions that have positive consequences ii. Dysfunctions are actions that have negative consequences iii. “Manifest functions” are intended iv. “Latent functions” are unintended 7 Emile Durkheim sees society solidifying in two form of social consensus’: i. “Mechanical” solidarity ii. “Organic” solidarity: 8 American sociologist, Talcott Parsons (1950’s) comes up with AGIL paradigm that summarizes the four functional requisites of any system of action. Society as a system of interacting various social units. 9 CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE The social-conflict paradigm is a framework for building theory that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change. Most sociologist who favor the conflict paradigm attempt not only to understand society but also to reduce social inequality. Key figures in this tradition include Karl Marx, W.E.B Du Bois and C. Wright Mills. However, it ignores social unity based on mutual interdependence and shared values. Like social functional paradigm, it envisions society terms of broad 10 abstractions. Conflict perspective assumes that social behaviour is best understood in terms of tension between groups over power or the allocation of resources, including housing, money, access to services and political representation. Society is held together by who has power at a moment in time. i. Power allows some to dominate others ii. Dominance leads to conflict iii. Conflict and change are inevitable iv. Conflicts holds society together as new alliances are formed and others fail 11 ▪ According to Karl Marx in all stratified societies there are two major social groups: a ruling class (bourgeoisie) and a subject class (proletariat). The ruling class derives its power from its ownership and control of the forces of production. ▪ The ruling class exploits and oppresses the subject class. As a result there is a basic conflict of interest between the two classes. ▪ The various institutions of society such as the legal and political system are instruments of ruling class domination and serve to further its interests. 12 13 Applying Conflict Theory: Conflict theory and its variants are used by many sociologists today to study a wide range of social problems. Examples include: How exposure to environmental pollution and hazards is shapes by race and class How today’s global capitalism creates a global system of power and inequality How words play a role in reproducing and justifying conflict The causes and consequences of the gender pay 14 gap between men and women SYMBOLIC INTERACTION PERSPECTIVE The symbolic-interaction paradigm is a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals. Individuals construct the nature of their social world through social interaction. Social life is then possible only because humans can communicate through symbols. Key figures in the development include George Herbert Mead, Erving Goffman, George Homans and Peter Blau. 15  The structural-functional and the conflict paradigms share macro-level orientation, meaning they focus on broad social structures that shape society as a whole. In contrast, symbolic-interactionism has a micro-level orientation; it focuses on patterns of social interaction in specific settings. All humans communications take place through the perception and interpretation of symbols. How people define situations is important. There is a general consensus on how situations are defined. We do not respond directly to reality but to the symbolic meanings we attach to the real world. 16  Symbolic-interactionism attempts to explain more clearly how individuals actually experience society. However, among it weaknesses are: Its micro-orientation sometimes result in the error of ignoring the influence of larger social structures. By emphasizing what is unique, it risks overlooking the effects of culture, class, gender and race. 17 C.H.Cooley 18 19 RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIOLOGY From the three major sociological perspectives, we can draw many ideas about how social forces shape our lives. Yet, these ideas are merely idle guesswork unless they are backed up by scientific facts. The need for facts is one important reason sociologists conduct research. The purpose of social research: to check the presumed validity of existing theories about people and society. to produce information that describes our lives to develop new theories that explain how our lives are influenced by various social forces. 20  A Research Model (Eight steps in the scientific research model) Selecting the topic Defining the problem Reviewing the literature Formulating a (testable) hypotheses Choosing a research method/s Collecting the data Analyzing the results Sharing the results Ideas for 21 further research RESEARCH METHODS ▪ Approaches to inquiry ▪ Used to describe, explore and explain social reality 1.Quantitative Methods Used to collect numerical information or information that can be converted into numerical data 2. Qualitative Methods Used to collect information that is readily that 22 is not readily convertible into numerical data THEORIES AND HYPOTHESES Theory Statement explaining the relationship between phenomena of interest Hypothesis Testable expectation about relationship between phenomena of interest 23 COMMON RESEARCH TOOLS Surveys Face-to-face Mail Telephone Internet Qualitative Field Research In-Depth Interviews Ethnography Participant Observation 24 ADDITIONAL RESEARCH TOOLS Content Analysis Experiments Historical Research Evaluation Research Case Study Etc. 25 SURVEY Selecting a representative sample of people and asking them to fill our questionnaires, interviewing them in person or on the phone. Self-administered questionnaires inexpensive and useful; greater response from subjects in personal interviews. Disadvantage: questionnaires not returned; personal interview costly in time and money. OBSERVATION AND ETHNOGRAPHY Observing subjects’ activities as a detached outsider or as a participating member identifying or concealing oneself as researcher to subjects. Provides firsthand experience with natural, real-life situations; reveals subjects’ own perspectives; useful for developing new theories. Findings largely relevant to one particular case; not generalizable to other cases or useful for testing 27 theories. ANALYSIS OF EXISTING DATA Secondary analysis involves studying someone else’s quantitative data; content analysis entails examining and converting qualitative into quantitative data. Both secondary and content analysis save much time and money; content analysis also unobtrusive to subjects and uniquely suitable for historical research. Both secondary and content analysis not sufficiently valid and reliable because interpretation of data28 tends to be subjective.  RESEARCH PROCESS DATA COLLECTION DATA PROCESSING ANALYSIS REPORTING 29 SUMMARY 30