APS Exam Review PDF

APS Exam Review Unit 1 - Introduction: Anthropology: Scientific study of humans - origins, behaviour, physical, social and cultural developments -​ Cultural anthro: studies norms and values of society -​ Linguistic anthro: studies how language affects social life -​ Physical anthro: st...

APS Exam Review Unit 1 - Introduction: Anthropology: Scientific study of humans - origins, behaviour, physical, social and cultural developments -​ Cultural anthro: studies norms and values of society -​ Linguistic anthro: studies how language affects social life -​ Physical anthro: studies the evolution and biological development of humans Psychology: Scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those affecting behaviour -​ Clinical psychology: diagnosing mental health of medical patients, prescribe medications, therapy - treat serious psychological conditions -​ Counselling psychology: diagnosing and treating mental and emotional issues of individuals or groups of patients - afflictions related to stress, social or familial -​ Educational psychology: applies psychological concepts to educational settings - formulate programs to meet the needs of various types of students (disabled & gifted) Sociology: Study of human social relationships and institutions - how human action and consciousness are shaped -​ Macrosociology: wide approach - studies society as a whole -​ Microsociology: roles and interactions an individual or small group of people might have in society -​ Social behaviour: why humans behave the way they do - understanding the social influence of factors; family, gender, culture, media The Social Science Inquiry Model: -​ Before you begin, questions must be asked - these questions will guide your research -​ Conduct extensive background research - what has already been learned? -​ Create a hypothesis to be tested - final results will lead to a conclusion (thesis) Steps of the Social Science Inquiry Model: 1.​ Questions 2.​ Focus - what has already been proven? 3.​ Formulate a hypothesis 4.​ Collect data -​ Anthro: questionnaires, interviews, participant observation -​ Psychology: interviews, conduct experiments -​ Sociology: historical analysis, experimental research 5.​ Assemble and analyze data 6.​ Stop and check - do you have enough data? 7.​ Present you data 8.​ Reflection Unit 2 - Anthropology: Physical Anthropology: -​ Concerned with origin, evolution and diversity of humans Key Terms: Paleoanthropology: Study of human ancestors based on the remains of the distant evolutionary past Hominid: Group consisting of all modern extinct Great Apes -​ Modern humans, chimpanzees gorillas, orang-utans, and all their immediate ancestors Hominin: Group consisting of modern humans, extinct human species and all our immediate ancestors -​ Members of the genera Homo, Australopithecus & Neanderthals Fossil: The remains or impression of a prehistoric organism preserved in petrified form or as a mold or cast in rock Radiometric Dating: Process to calculate an age in years for geologic materials by measuring the presence of a shirt-life radioactive element (carbon - 14, potassium - 14) Bipedalism: Concept of animals walking on two legs -​ ‘Lucy’ proved that humans walked upright over 3 million years ago -​ Features that suggest it: s-shaped spine, wide and flat pelvis, slanting thigh bone, double arched foot and big toe inline with the heel Primatology: Study of anatomy and behavior of living primates Human variation: Study of the genetic differences between people populations Key Concepts: Charles Darwin: English naturalist and biologist who published a book on the origin of species -​ Theorized that chance mutation in a given species gives rise to individuals with a competitive advantage in their environment  -​ Allowed for more successful reproduction -​ If the genetic pattern is passed on frequently, then that adaptation will appear more often -​ These changes happen over millennia → process is called natural selection Homo Erectus: An ancestor to modern humans, 1.8 million years ago -​ Found in South Africa, Kenya, Spain, China & Indonesia -​ Used tools, technology, and culture to hunt for and gather food -​ More variation in height, larger brains -​ May have used fire to cook 1.9 million years ago, used stones and axes to kill animals, used shells too -​ Had hand-bone projection called “styloid process” -​ Showed compassionate behaviour and cares for the other members of their social group “Lucy”: Donald Johanson and his team were digging in Ethiopia and found an elbow bone from a human ancestor -​ It was a 40% complete fossil -​ Part of Australopithecus afarensis -​ It was 3 million years old, she was an upright walker which proved that the first humans didn’t need bigger brains if your could walk upright -​ Lucy’s childhood was very short, she was a fully grown adult (wisdom teeth and fused bones) at 12 years old -​ Her discovery encouraged the work of other paleoanthropologists Neanderthals: Shorter, heavier, more muscular, large brains, different shape skulls (protruding nose, heavy brow ridges, large teeth, little chin), used their bodies more rigorously than Homo Sapiens -​ Lived in Europe, middle east and parts of asia, adapted to icy environments, used stone and bone for tools, lived in caves -​ Got outlived by Homo Sapiens because we evolved and advanced more quickly Turkana Boy: 1.5 million year old specimen of an adolescent boy (one of the most complete fossils) -​ Could have grown to be 6 feet 7 inches -​ Part of Erectus species Humans vs. Other Primates: Humans are much more advanced and are pushing other primates and species to extinction -​ Significantly larger brain -​ Cognitive abilities -​ Variation in size and shape -​ Metabolic changes -​ Motor skills and abilities Bipedalism: Concept of animals walking upright on two legs -​ Gave humans a huge advantage which lead to our success as a species -​ Started around 3-6 million years ago (earliest) Forensic anthropology: Study of human remains -​ Applies skeletal analysis and techniques in archaeology to solving criminal cases -​ Gather information from bones and recovery conditions -​ Specialize in analyzing hard tissues (bones) -​ Knowledgeable about excavating buried remains and recording the evidence Can apply their techniques to skeletons of any age -​ Stages of growth in bones and teeth tell if the remains are a child or adult -​ Shape of pelvic bones tells the sex -​ Abnormals changes in the shape size and density of bones shows disease or trauma -​ Bones marked by perimortem injuries like unhealed fractures, bullet holes or cuts can show cause of death Examining skeletal remains for clues of ancestry: -​ Skull shape and dental traits differ in individuals of different ethnicities -​ Certain activities, diet, and ways of life are reflected in bones and teeth Key Anthropologists: Jane Goodall: Worked in Tanzania and studies chimpanzees -​ They used sticks to catch termites -​ Adoption of orphaned infants within their society -​ They had temperaments, personalities, and character quirks - complex creatures Dian Fossey: Studies gorillas and the Congo and Rwanda -​ Females are traded between troops and males may kill infants to bring females into the heat -​ Help conserve the Gorillas and wrote a book - Gorillas in the Mist Birute Galdikas: Studies orangutans in Borneo -​ Females don’t give birth until age 15 -​ Females invest huge amounts of energy and resources in raising their young while males remain solitary Raymond Dart: -​ Found the skull of a young human like creature  →identified the face, mandible and endocats as being that of a juvenile bipedal ape, which showed that humans lived in Africa - new idea at the time Robert Broom: -​ Made the first discovery of an early hominin which was an adult australopithecus skull - Mrs. Ples -​ His discoveries proved that the evolutionary tree of humans was more complex than thought Kamoya Kemeu: -​ Found an entire mandible part of a paranthropus boisei -​ Found turkana -​ Found a new hominid (partial skull) different from past findings, called turkanopitheus palakolensis Davidson Black: -​ Found a fossilized hominid tooth -​ Pointed out the close relationships between Perkin man and Java man Michel Brunet: -​ Discovered the skull remains of a late miocene hominid (7 million years old) -​ Discovered jaw and teeth Tim White: -​ Uncovered 3.4 million year old remains of Australia afarinesh -​ Found the oldest known hominin fossil The Leakeys: -​ Found a small form of hominid at Olduvai that they believed was different and more advanced -​ Discovered lots of hominin and other fossil remains in eastern Africa Cultural Anthropology: Key Terms: Culture: a modern concept based on a term used in a classical antiquity by a Rowan thinker Cicero “cultural animi” -​ First appeared in its current sense in Europe in the 18th and 19th century → used to indicate a process of cultivation or improvement (agriculture/horticulture) -​ 19th century: referred first to betterment or refinement of the individual through education and fulfillment of national ideals →mid 19th century: scientists use culture to refer to universal human capacity -​ 20th century: culture emerged as a central concept in anthropology encompassing the range of human phenomena that cant be attributed to genetic inheritance →modern culture has become all parts of human society that aren't an explicit function of biology Culture is the total system of ideas, values, behaviors and attitudes of a society commonly shared by most members of the society -​ Cultural anthropologists study and research past/present human cultures, attempting to understand the elements that make/made these cultures function Cultural anthropology: the study of human societies and cultures and their development Informant: a reliable and knowledgeable person who provides specific information to an anthropologist studying [their] community Unstructured interview: like a conversation -​ Advantages: allows the researcher to test out ideas, can lead to a great understanding, generates the deepest responses because there are no boundaries -​ Disadvantages: may not stay on track with regards to what is being studied, inexperienced interviewers struggle to ask relevant questions because they aren't planned out, its difficult to redirect the interviews, time consuming Semi-structured interview: in between -​ Advantages: some questions are prepared in advance, end up with reliable and qualitative data -​ Disadvantages: can be easy to stray away from the topic (sensitive subject), you need experienced interviewers (hard to train), time consuming Structured interview: organized and rigid -​ Advantages: conducted efficiently by non-experts, results are easier to analyze -​ Disadvantages: questions cannot be adapted if the situation changes, not going to get insightful answers, can't ask very many open ended questions Ethnology: scholarly and textured study of the origins and cultures of different human races and peoples -​ The outcome of this type of qualitative research is storytelling: snapshots of people's lives and relationships, inner thoughts, feelings and contradictions →goal of ethnographic research is to combine the view of the insider with that of an outsider to describe a social setting Ethnography: the recording and analysis of a culture or society, usually based on participant observation, resulting in a written account of people, place or institution -​ participant observer immerses themselves in the group being studied, often living among its members and participating directly in the culture -​ Traditionally ethnographies have focused in depth on a bounded and definable group of people, today they are just as likely to focus on a particular aspect of contemporary social life (new reproductive technologies, the meanings of the veil, virtual communication, or football fans) Ethnocentrism: characterized by or based by the attitude that one's own ethnic/cultural group is superior -​ evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture Key Concepts: Participant observation: a research methodology where the researcher is immersed in the day-to-day activities of the participants (group being studied) -​ Margaret Mead & Ruth Benedict Kinship: relationships between two or more people (ancestry, marriage, adoption) Family of orientation: family you were born into (didn't choose) biologically or through adoption Family of procreation: the family that you choose to create biologically or through adoption Ethics: moral principles that govern a person’s behavior or the conducting of an activity (right from wrong) Ethics within participant observation (pitfalls): as with any form of research dealing with human subjects, the cultural anthropologist must ensure that ethical boundaries are never crossed by those conducting the study -​ Researcher must clearly establish boundaries before the onset of the study -​ Guidelines should be in place should any issue cross the line of ethical behavior → ex. Studying a population where illegal activities may occur or when working with minor children -​ The ethical concern that is most important is that of informed consent and voluntary participation → there is the issue of deciding whether to get consent from every individual, the person of leadership, or not inform anyone in fear of influencing the attitudes -​ It is the researchers responsibility that the participants of the study do not suffer an ill effects from the study (direct/indirect) →participants are informed of their rights as subjects of the study, and that the group was chosen justly Ethical factors: -​ Subjective: conclusions shaped by cultural and personal perspective and beliefs -​ Objective: conclusions based on data and facts and uninfluenced by personal perspectives, prejudices and emotions -​ Reflexivity: practice of reflecting on your own worldview, biases, and impact on the culture you are studying Ritual: universal feature of human social existence -​ Just as one cannot image a society without language or exchange, one would be equally hard-pressed to imagine a society without ritual -​ While the word “ritual” commonly brings to mind exoticized images of primitive others engaged in mythical activities, one can find rituals throughout “modern” society → Olympics, commemoration of national tragedies, clinical gatherings, turkey carving at Thanksgiving, Mardi Gras, personal life-patterns, the way we greet others Ritual is in fact an inevitable component of culture, extending from the largest-scale social and political processes to the most intimate aspects of our self-experience Cultural relativism: view that all beliefs, customs, and ethics are relative to the individual within their own social context -​ Right and wrong are culture specific -​ Moral in one society may be considered immoral in another culture -​ No standard of morality exists Culture & identity: culture and one's identity are inextricably linked, we all have features tied to out genetic heritage -​ If culture consists of everything we do, make and believe (seperate from our DNA) then the vast majority of our daily lives is dictated by the cultural norms of the society we are a part of -​ By examining many different cultures, we can grow to appreciate both our own cultural assumptions as well as the ways other cultures see and live in the world Feminist anthropology: social constructionist perspective (which argues that gender is socially constructed) and intersectionality (which focuses on the intersections of multiple identities) -​ The amount of freedom women have is tied to their contributions to the food supply → When hunting is the main way food is sources, women have less freedom -​ Our ideas about gender are culturally constructed, not biologically Key Cultural Anthropologists: Margaret Mead: -​ Groundbreaking fieldwork in Samoa and new guinea -​ Spoke on social issues and advocated for change -​ Human behaviours aren't biological and are determined by culture -​ Studied the Oceania people Marcel Mauss -​ Research on gift exchange, magic and societal structures -​ Developed a theory on reciprocity an exchange that had a strong impact on anthropology -​ Father of french ethnology Edward Burnett Tylor: -​ Founding father of the science of social anthropology -​ Most important work: “Primitive Culture” →human cultures advances through stages -​ Established the theoretical principles of victorian anthropology Clifford Geertz: -​ Founder of symbolic/interpretive anthropology -​ Developed “thick description”  -​ Looked for theories on why people behave the way they do -​ Culture is a system with symbols and meanings →rejected hard sciences, looked at culture from a more interpretive view Edward Sapir: -​ Development of the discipline of linguistics in the united states -​ Conducted ethnographic fieldwork on the indigenous languages -​ Contributed to the general shape of the social science and professionalization of linguistic anthropology -​ Created the definition of language -​ Emphasized the importance of understanding cultural context -​ Importance of understanding ethnographic fieldwork and cultural immersion Bronislaw Malinowski: -​ Studied oceana people -​ Theory of functionalism -​ Founder of social anthropology Lewis Morgan Henry: -​ Comprehensive theory of social evolution -​ Greatly advanced the kinship systems →how kinship related to society as a whole -​ The concept of lineage: →lineage is descent from ancestors → Understanding the complexities of family organization in various cultures -​ Social institutions: → marriage and family structures →Institutions are not static, but evolve over time -​ Theory of cultural evolution: - Three stages of evolution: → savagery, barbarism, civilization Ruth Benedict: -​ One of the first women to make major contributions to anthropology -​ Introduced the idea of cultural relativism -​ Conducted extensive research (fieldwork) -​ National character studies Alfred R. Radcliffe-Brown: -​ Father of structural functionalism → a theory based on the idea that all aspects of society including institutions, roles, amd norms are meant to serve a purpose and are necessary for the long-term survival of a society →existence of social group →social distinctions  →internal structure of the group →interaction between groups -​ Played a vital role in expanding our knowledge of kinship → examined the roles and statuses created for an individual by practicing kinship -​ Functionalism theory: the life of a society can be viewed as a dynamic system of elements Franz Boas: -​ Race, culture and language -​ Completed influential work on baffin island, studied races and how they were unstable, race did not play a role in status -​ Four fields approach: physical anthropology, archaeology, linguistic anthropology, cultural anthropology -​ Cultures must be understood on their own terms, not judged by western standards -​ Challenged the ethnocentrism of his time -​ Historical particularism: cultures develop uniquely influenced by history and geography, culture is a set of ideas help by a group of people -​ Cultural relativism: don't judge a culture based on our own standards, we should try to understand the cultural practices of other groups in their own cultural context -​ Advocacy of social issues during his time → fought against racism, for immigrant rights, and fair treatments of all people Claude Levi Strauss: -​ French social anthropologist and leading theorist of structuralism -​ Father of structural anthropology →anthropological research should concentrate on the fundamental patterns of human thought -​ What makes cultures unique and different from one another and the hidden rules -​ All humans think in similar ways, like how we use language Eric Wolf: -​ Marxist anthropologist -​ Promoted the idea of diversity in the understanding of cultures -​ Political focus: societes are bonded together by each other's beliefs -​ Economic focus: all economies are dependant on each other -​ Interconnectedness of societies: societies depend on each other -​ Historical context: understand a society, have to know its oath, societes are changing -​ Cultures did not evolve on their own, social interaction between cultures help define them -​ No culture is isolated Unit 3 - Psychology: Keys terms: Psychoanalytic theory: all human behaviour is influenced by early childhood and that all childhood experiences influence the unconscious mind throughout life (Freud) Psychodynamic theory: focuses on resolving a patients conflicted conscious and unconscious feelings The conscious mind: information that we are always aware of; our conscious mind performs the thinking when we take in new information The unconscious mind: information processing in our mind that we are not aware of, it holds our feelings and memories (Freud), it includes patterns of memories instincts, and experiences common to all (Jung) The ID: instinctual part of the mind, operates on the pleasure principle The ego: rational part of the mind, operates on the reality principle The superego: the moral centre of the mind - our conscious (ethics) Defence mechanisms: the Ego’s way of distorting reality to deal with difficulty and anxiety Repression: mental process where unacceptable desires or impulses are excluded from conscious to operare in the unconscious Denial: a person refuses to recognize or acknowledge something that is unpleasant or painful (most common) Displacement: shift of an emotion from its original source to another object, person or situation Projection: when one blames others for their own shortcoming or mistakes Key concepts: Analytical psychology: branch of psychology funded by Jung -​ Based on the idea that balancing a person's psyche would allow the person to reach his or her full potential Collective unconscious: shared inherited pool of memories from our ancestors, shared by all people, regardless of culture Archetypes: manifestations of the collective unconscious, characters, symbols, situations and behaviors that are universal motifs from our ancestors The four humours: refer to bodily fluids -​ Ancient medical concept -​ Ancient greek philosophers and thinkers were the first to categorize humans beings by personality type  -​ Different people have different proportions of these fluids; the predominance of one fluid defines one's temperaments and predominant humors (according to the ancients) Humour Body Produced by Element Qualities Complexion Personality substance and body type Sanguine Blood Liver Air Hot, moist Red- Generous cheeked, optimist corpulent irresponsible Choleric Yellow bile Splein Fire Hot, dry Red-haired, Violent thin Vengeful Ambitious Phlegmatic Phlegm Lungs Water Cold, moist Corpulent Sluggish Pallid Cowardly Melancholic Black bite Gall- Earth Cold, dry Sallow, thin Introspective bladder Sentimist Gluttonous Carl Jung went much further, developing the theory that individuals each had a psychological type, he believed that there were two basic kinds of ‘functions’ which humans used in their lives; how we take in information and how we make decisions. -​ Within these two categories there were two opposite ways of function →senses or intuition →objective logic or subjective feelings -​ Jung believed that we used all four functions in our lives, but each individual uses the different functions with a varying amount of frequency -​ The functions that someone uses the most is their ‘dominant function’ →individuals either ‘extroverted’ or ‘introverted’ their dominant function -​ The ‘dominant function’ overshadowed all of the other functions in terms of defining personality type Psychometrics: -​ An area of study that uses questionnaires and tests to measure personality, ability and knowledge -​ Jung’s theories (above) led to this field of study Behaviourism: -​ B.F. Skinner was an American psychologist best-known for his influence on behaviorism -​ The term refers to the school of psychology founded by John B. Watson based on the belief that behaviours can be measured, trained, and changed -​ Skinner referred to his own philosophy as ‘radical behaviorism’, and suggested that the concept of free will was an illusion  -​ He believed instead that all human action was the direct result of conditioning In his operant conditioning process, actions that are followed by good consequences are more likely to occur again, behaviours that result in negative consequences become less likely to occur again -​ Going to the gym vs. eating a bag of chips When he was at Harvard, Skinner became interested in studying human behavior in an objective and scientific way, he developed the ‘skinner box’ which was an operant conditioning apparatus -​ The device was a chamber that contained a bar or key that an animal could press in order to receive food, water or some other reinforcement It was during this time that he also invented the cumulative recorder, a device that recorded responses as a sloped line, by looking at the slope of the line, which indicated the rate of response, Skinner was able to see the response rates depended on what happened after the animal pressed the bar -​ A higher response rate followed rewards, lower response rates followed a lack of rewards -​ The device also showed Skinner that the schedule of reinforcement that was used also influenced the rate of response -​ Skinner found that behaviors were dependent on what happens after the response →this is called operant behaviour Zimbardo and the Stanford Prison Experiment: -​ In 1971, a team of psychologists led by Phillip Zimbardo designed and executed and unusual experiment that used a mock prison setting, with volunteer college students role-playing prisoners and guards to test the power of the social situation to determine behaviour →this research has become a classic demonstration of situational power to influence individual conditioned attitudes, values and behaviours →extreme, swift and unexpected were the transformations of character in many of the participants that this study (planned to last 2 weeks) had to be terminated by the sixth day -​ In the 1960’s, research by social psychologist Stanley Milgram was one of the earliest demonstrations of the extent to which a large group of ordinary citizens could be led to blindly obey unjust authority and deliver extreme shock to an innocent ‘victim’ -​ The Stanford Prison Experiment extended that analysis to demonstrate the surprisingly profound impact of institutional forces on the behaviours of normal, healthy participants →they wanted to determine what prison-like settings bring out in people →they sought to discover to what extent the violence and antisocial behaviours found in prisons can be traced to the ‘bad apples’ that go into prisons or the ‘bad barrels’ (the prisons themselves) that can corrupt behaviour of even ordinary, good people Humanist psychology: -​ In the latter half of the 20th century, humanist psychologists believed that the client should be very involved in his or her own recovery, rather than relying only on the therapist’s interpretation of the issues Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: -​ Physiological needs: survival needs such as sleep, food, air, water, and reproduction, requirements we all need individually for survival -​ Safety and security needs: keeps us safe from harm; shelter, job security, health, and safe environments, if a person does not feel safe in an environment, they will seek to find safety before they attempt to meet and higher level needs -​ Belongingness and love needs: central to humans as social beings, family, friendships and intimate connections get many people through the ups and downs of life, lack of interactions and a sense of belongingness may result in loneliness or depression -​ Esteem needs: satisfied through achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, self-respect, and respect from others -​ Self-actualization needs: satisfied by realizing one's full potential, and through self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences (transcendence) Cognitive psychology: Cognitive psychologists try to build up cognitive models of the information processing that goes on inside people’s minds, including perception, attention, language, memory, thinking, consciousness Cognitive psychology became of great importance in the mid 1950’s -​ The emphasis of psychology shifted away from the study of conditioned behaviour and psychoanalytical notions about the study of the mind, towards the understanding of human information processing, using strict and rigorous laboratory investigation At its base is the idea that psychology should be seen as a science -​ Cognitive psychologists believe that it is essential to look at the brain, the mind, and the mental processes of an organism, and how these influence behaviour -​ In general, cognitive psychologists see humans as information processors -​ Key cognitive psychologists: Jean Piaget, Albert Bandura, Elizabeth Loftus Developmental psychology: The scientific approach that aims to explain psychological growth, change and consistency through the human lifespan -​ developmental psychologists look at how thinking, feeling, and behaviour change throughout a person’s life A significant proportion of theories in this discipline focus on development during childhood , as this is the period during an individual’s lifespan when the most change occurs -​ The field of development has expanded to include psychological development during adolescence, adulthood and old age Developmental psychologists study a wide variety of theoretical areas, such as biological, social, emotion, and cognitive processes -​ The three goals of developmental psychology are to describe, explain, and optimize development Normative developmental: patterns of change Idiographic development: individual variations in patterns of change Perpetual psychology: -​ Emphasizes the communality in the way that people experience reality Leaving aside cases of brain damage or mental disease, we all see the sun rise in the east, enjoy the scent of a rose and experience a jolt of fear when we are woken up in the middle of the night by the sound of breaking glass -​ Yet as we know from our life, each one of us has his or her own preferences - some people are acutely sensitive to flashing lights, some can stare at a bright screen for hours, some have perfect pitch, others are tone deaf Perceptual consistency: It is obvious that if the apparatus that senses the world differs between two individuals, then the conscious experience of the brains wired to these senses cannot be the same either Clues from optical illusions: -​ Bistable Illusions are images that can be seen in one of two ways → Best known is “old woman, young girl " and Necker Cube →These two interpretations flip back and forth - the time it takes for the perception to flip differs consistently across individuals (some have to force it) Perceptual sets: Neuroscientists have shown that thickness and density of the gray matter in certain areas of the brain significantly and consistently correlated and negatively with the perception duration -​ The thicker the brain section, the faster the two interpretations switch back and forth -​ this proves that the specifics and peculiarities of individual perception are tied to brain structure Anxiety disorders: Seem to be a result of a combination of biological, psychological, and other individual factors How we think and react to situations can affect anxiety -​ Some people may perceive certain situations to be more dangerous than they actually are -​ Others may have had a bad experience and fear these will happen again (dog bite) -​ Some psychologists believe that childhood experiences can be a big contributor to anxiety Problems with brain chemistry can also contribute to the development as armenia and thyroid problems, caffeine, alcohol and certain medications are also anxiety inducing Traumatic life events like death, war, and natural disasters also trigger anxiety disorders OCD: -​ Persistent intrusive ideas, thoughts, impulses or images (obsessions) which often result in performing compulsive rituals over and over again -​ Typical behaviors are washing, checking, and arranging things -​ These actions only give temporary relief Phobias and panic disorders: -​ These are anxiety disorders that involve irrational aversions to certain things (spiders) or situations (heights) -​ Panic attacks are extreme anxiety reactions that involve shortness of breath and often unconsciousness -​ Very common, affecting one in every ten canadians PTSD: -​ Reliving a psychologically traumatic situation, long after any physical danger involved has passed, in flashbacks and nightmares Clinical Depression: Mental illness that affects millions of people each year -​ Depression causes persistent changes in some people's mood, behaviour and feelings -​ The illness interferes with and disrupts a person's education, job and family life People with this illness often feel down on themselves and hopeless about the future -​ The may complain about physical aches and pains with no medical explanation Major depression: identified by many of the symptoms above Manic depression: bipolar disorder Dysthymia: less severe form of major depression that keeps people from enjoying life SAD: depression that relates to the season of the year and the brightness and duration of daylight Causes of clinical depression: -​ Compex life interactions between brain chemicals and hormones that influence a person's energy level, feelings, sleeping and eating habits -​ Family history of illness, biochemical and psychological make-up, prolonged stress, traumatic life crisis (death of a loved one, job loss, divorce) -​ No identifiable cause (idiopathic) *Psychosis & Psychotic Disorders* Key Psychologists & Their Theories: Sigmund Freud: -​ Founder of psychoanalysis (ID, ego, superego) -​ Conscious and unconscious mind (defence mechanisms, repression, denial, displacement, projection, free association) -​ Dreams: dreams are able to reach repressed on anxiety provoking thoughts (mainly sexual), live our desires through our dreams, defence mechanisms allow thoughts to sneak into our dreams in a symbolic way Carl Jung: -​ Origins of human behaviour -​ Collective unconscious -​ Archetypes -​ Dreams: symbolism and imagery, can have many different meanings, relive the past or predict the future, great source of creativity, should be used as a tool Ivan Pavlov: -​ classical conditioning - explains how people associate two stimuli in their minds and react to one of them as though it was the other -​ Pavlov’s dog B.F. Skinner: -​ Behaviourism -​ Skinner box -​ Cumulative recorder Abraham Maslow: -​ Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Viktor Frankl: -​ Existential theory: a person's ability to transcend their environment -​ the primary motivation of an individual is the search for meaning in life and that the primary purpose of psychotherapy should be to help the individual find that meaning Carl Rogers: -​ There needs to be congruence between the real self and the ideal self -​ Believed self-actualization was something every individual was seeking Albert Bandura: -​ Social learning theory: observation and modeling play a primary role in how and why people learn -​ Emphasized the importance of observation, imitation, and modeling in the learning process Elizabeth Loftus: -​ Memory theory: substituting a more suggestive word for a neutral one in a question can alter a witness's memory -​ Our memories don't always stick in their original form but are subject to manipulation when exposed to misinformation, new thoughts, or suggestive ideas Jean Piaget: -​ Stages of cognitive development →sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, formal operational stage Erik Erikson: -​ Stages of development (8 stages) Leta Stetter Hollingworth: -​ Believed educational and environmental factors, not just inheritance, played a role in giftedness and focused on how to nurture giftedness and educate gifted children -​ The view in education at the time was that bright children could take care of themselves (not always true) Harry Harlow: -​ The need for a mother's love is not physical, but rather, emotional -​ Harlow Monkey experiment Mary Ainsworth: -​ Stages of attachment -​ Children and infants need to develop a secure dependence on their parents before seeking unfamiliar situation -​ Strange situations test Unit 4 - Sociology: Key Terms & Concepts: Auguste Comte & The Origins of Sociology: French philosopher (father of sociology) - first used the term sociology in 1838 to refer to the scientific study of society -​ Believed that all societies develop and progress through the following stages: religious, metaphysical, and scientific -​ Society needs to obtain quantifiable data collection in order to be understood Positivism: Society needs scientific knowledge based on facts and evidence to solve its problems -​ Nothing should be based on speculation or superstition (religious & metaphysical) Cultural Expressions: All the elements produced by and within a society that all members of that society recognize and understand -​ Most of the expressive output of a given society reflects culture - beliefs and behaviours that a social group shares -​ Sociological analysis can be applied to every expression of culture, from symbols to icons, from sporting events to holidays, education to transportation, fashion to etiquette Values: important and lasting belongs or ideals shared by the members of a culture about what is good or bad and desirable or undesirable Norms: social expectations that guide behaviour, exp;lain why people do what they do in given situations Roles: behaviours expected of an individual who occupies a given social position or status -​ Comprehensive pattern of behaviour that is socially recognized, pricing a means of identifying and placing someone in society Objectivity: assumes that a truth or independent reality exists outside of any sociological investigation or observation -​ Uncover this reality without containing it Universality: element, pattern, trait, or institution that is common to all human cultures worldwide -​ Ex. the family Social Influence: change in behaviour that one person causes in another, intentionally or unintentionally, as a result of the ebay the changes person perceives themselves in relationship to the influencer, other people, and society in general -​ The effect other people have on one’s thoughts and actions Biological determinism: the idea that most human characteristics, physical and mental, including most behaviors, are determined at conception by hereditary factors passed from parent to offspring Social determinism: the idea that culture and our social environment completely shape and influence human behaviour -​ Refutes the notion of ‘human nature’ as a determining factor in human social behaviour Socialization: process through which people are taught to be proficient members of a society -​ Describes the ways that people come to understand social norms and expectation, to accept society’s beliefs, and to be aware of society; values -​ Socialization is not the same as socializing - it is a sociological process that occurs through socializing Primary socialization: process that teaches one the basic skills needed to survive in a given society -​ Ex. proper hygiene, language, acquisition, eating with a fork, etc. Secondary socialization: process that teaches one the skills needed to act appropriately in group situations -​ Ex. literacy and numeracy in school settings Anticipatory socialization: process by which non-group members adopt the values and standard of groups that they aspire to join, so as to ease their entry into the groupe and help them interact appropriately once they have been accepted -​ Ex. getting prepared for university Resocialization: radically changing someone’s personality by carefully controlling their environment -​ Ex. new recruits into the military so that they can operate as soldiers, as well as the reverse process Adult life stages: 1.​ Young single adult 2.​ Newly married couple 3.​ Family with young children 4.​ Family with adolescents 5.​ Family in mid-life 6.​ Family in later life Discrimination: the act of treating a person or particular group of people differently, especially in a worse way from the way you treat other people, because of their skin colour, gender, sexuality, age, etc. Overt discrimination: consists of intentional actions taken against an individual or group strictly based on some distinguishing characteristics they possess -​ Ex. employer who refuses to hire women (company policy) Systemic discrimination: subtle and often unintentional discrimination story actions taken against a person or group were the consequences are not fully recognized -​ Patterns of behaviour, policies or practices that are part of the structures of an organization, and which create or perpetuate disadvantage for specific persons or groups -​ Ex. schools post a ban on all head coverings and hats, failing to consider students who wear the hijab Prejudice: unfair and unreasonable opinion or feeling, especially when formed without enough thought or knowledge -​ Often manifests as individual unethical judgment or active hostility toward another social group Learned theory: we are not born prejudice -​ Albert Bandura’s theory states that “behaviour is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning” -​ Family is the main source of teaching intolerance to young people  -​ In a nation that is becoming increasingly diverse, it is essential that the appropriate actions, such as parenteral influence, are taken to reduce this prejudice as much as possible Competition theory: race, ethnic, and cultural conflict specifies complex mechanisms under which prejudice and discrimination occurs -​ First: familiar “racial threat” argument, suggesting that the magnitude of response by dominant groups depending on the timing and size of the incoming group and on the clarity of ethnic distinctions made between newcomers and residents -​ Perceived unfair economic advantage is another factor →particularly large and concentrated waves of newcomers perceived as ethnically or tragically distinct are especially likely to receive an unfounded, hostile response Frustration-aggression theory: scapegoating is the process through which frustration and aggression are directed at a group that is not the causal agent of the frustration -​ Scapegoat theory emerged during the 1940’s as a way for social psychologists to explain why prejudice and racism occur Ignorance theory: the better you know someone, the more you likely understand them, the better you understand them, the less likely that any differences between the two of you will become a problem -​ When ethnocentrism becomes entrenched, there is no understanding or listening to others, or accepting that it's okay to be different -​ Such willful ignorance then leads to discrimination and prejudice Agents of socialization: a combination of social groups and social institutions that provide the first experiences of socialization Primary agents: family and close friends Secondary agents: social media, classmates, teachers, coworkers, peers Key Sociologists: Emile Durkheim: -​ Functionalism, division of labor, solidarity, and anomie -​ He theorized that individual behavior is not only influenced by internal factors but also by external societal factors Talcott Parsons: -​ Social action theory -​ The theory believes that every individual's personality differs from their social background -​ For instance, an illiterate individual cannot be named as 'unintelligible' Karl Marx: -​ Society progressed through a class conflict between the proletariat, the workers, and the bourgeoisie, the business owners and government leaders Dorothy Smith: -​ Standpoint theory -​ Sociology has ignored and objectified women, making them the “other” Max Weber: -​ Focuses on how certain actions and behaviors "make sense" to agents in society Wright Mills: -​ Social conflict theory -​ Society was structured by a ruling elite controlling lower classes through shared institutions Charles Cooley: -​ Indicated that groups can be broadly divided into two categories: primary and secondary →primary: small and made up of individuals who generally engage face-to-face in a long term emotional way (ex. Family and close friends) →secondary: often larger and impersonal (ex. Classroom or office) George Mead: -​ Concept of self -​ One's identity emerges out of external social interactions and internal feelings of oneself The Chicago School: -​ The natural environment, which the community inhabits, is a major factor in shaping human behavior, and that the city functions as a microcosm