Intelligence Theories PDF

INTELLIG ENCE  SO, what did you get on your SATs? Jane said she got a 1350…that means she’s really smart, right? Does it?  Think on Your Own… How do YOU define Intelligence?  Is it the ability to use reason and logic? Is it the ability to write and speak clearly? Is i...

INTELLIG ENCE  SO, what did you get on your SATs? Jane said she got a 1350…that means she’s really smart, right? Does it?  Think on Your Own… How do YOU define Intelligence?  Is it the ability to use reason and logic? Is it the ability to write and speak clearly? Is it limited to one’s performance in school? Is it behavior in social situations? How about knowing when you’re wrong?  HOW DO WE KNOW INTELLIGENCE EVEN EXISTS? Psychometricians specialize in measuring psychological characteristics for intelligence and personality. By using patterns of test scores, they have found evidence for general intelligence as well as for specific abilities  WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE? Intelligence is “the capacity to acquire and apply knowledge.” Intelligence includes the ability to benefit from past experience, act purposefully, solve problems, and adapt to new situations. Intelligence can also be defined as “the ability that intelligence tests measure.”  MOREOVER, INTELLIGENCE IS.. The mental ability that enable one to adapt to, shape, or select one’s environment The ability to judge, comprehend, and reason The ability to understand and deal with people, objects, and symbols The ability to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE FA C T O R T H E O R Y F L U I D A N D C RY S TA L L I Z E D INTELLIGENCE G A R D N E R ’ S M U LT I P L E INTELLIGENCES  FACTOR THEORY Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory The English psychologist, Charles Spearman (1863- 1945), in 1904 proposed his theory of intelligence called two-factor theory. According to him intellectual abilities are comprised of two factors, namely; the general ability known as G-factor and specific Abilities known as S- factors. According to Spearman (1904) all intelligent abilities have an area of overlap, which he called “g” for general ability. Each ability also depends partly on an “s” factor for specific ability. According to Spearman… the “g”  G-Factor: When a score is calculated and averaged across abilities, a general intelligence factor is established. It is meant to represent how generally intelligent you are based on your performance on this type of intelligence test. S-Factor: Commonly measured s-factors of intelligence include memory, attention and concentration, verbal comprehension, vocabulary, spatial skills, and abstract reasoning.  Characteristics of ‘G’ Factor: It is universal inborn ability. It is general mental energy. It is constant. The amount of ‘g’ differs from individual to individual. It is used in every activity of life. Greater the ‘g’ in an individual, greater is his success in life.  Characteristics of ‘S’ Factor: It is learned and acquired in the environment. It varies from activity to activity in the same individual. Individuals differ in the amount of ‘S’ ability.  CATTELL ’ S VIEW OF INTELLIGENCE - INTELLIGENCE AS A FEW BASIC ABILITIES Psychologists continue to divide general intelligence into specific factors. The Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory of Cognitive Abilities (CHC Theory) proposes that “g” is comprised of multiple cognitive abilities that when taken as a whole produce “g.” This theory comprises 2 important types of intelligence: 1. Fluid intelligence 2. Crystallized intelligence 1. Fluid Intelligence – The ability to think on the spot and solve novel problems The ability to perceive relationships The ability to gain new types of knowledge Fluid intelligence encompasses the ability to reason abstractly. If we were asked to solve an analogy, group a series of letters according to some criterion, or remember a set of numbers, we would be using fluid intelligence. We use fluid intelligence when we’re trying to rapidly solve a puzzle It is not influenced by education, formal training, culture and learning 2. Crystallized Intelligence – Factual knowledge about the world The skills already learned and practiced Examples – Arithmetic facts – Knowledge of the meaning of words – State capitals 2. Crystalized intelligence – It reflects our ability to call up information from long-term memory. – The accumulation of information, skills, and strategies that are learned through experience and can be applied in problem-solving situations. – We would be likely to rely on crystallized intelligence, for instance, if we were asked to participate in a discussion about the solution to the causes of poverty, a task that allows us to draw on our own past experiences and knowledge of the world. – In contrast to fluid intelligence, which reflects a more general kind of intelligence, crystallized intelligence is more a reflection of the culture in which a person is raised. It is influenced by culture, education and formal learning and training  The researcher suggest that crystallized intelligence peaks later in life might be due to the fact that people today have more education, greater access to information, and more mentally demanding jobs than did previous generations of adults. The results suggest that while older brains might indeed be slower, they are likely to still be more accurate, knowledgeable, and better able to assess the  The researchers are continuing their online research by introducing more cognitive tasks as well as tests designed to measure language abilities, executive function, and social and emotional intelligence. They also agree that further investigations are needed to determine exactly why mental powers peak at different ages. GA R D N E R T H E O RY O F INTELLIGENCE  The theory of multiple intelligences was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at Harvard University. It suggests that the traditional notion of intelligence, based on I.Q. testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr. Gardner proposes eight different intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential in children and adults. Linguistics - sensitivity to the meanings and sounds of words, mastery of syntax, appreciation of the ways language can be used Logical-Mathematical - Understanding of objects and symbols and of actions that be performed on them and of the relations between these actions, ability to identify problems and seek explanations Spatial - capacity to perceive the visual world accurately, to perform transformations upon perceptions and to re-create aspects of visual experience in the absence of physical stimuli  Musical - Sensitivity to individual tones and phrases of music, an understanding of ways to combine tones and phrases into larger musical rhythms and structures, awareness of emotional aspects of music Bodily-Kinesthetic - Use of one’s body in highly skilled ways for expressive or goal-directed purposes, capacity to handle objects skillfully Interpersonal - Ability to notice and make distinctions among the moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions of other people and potentially to act on this knowledge  Intrapersonal - access to one’s own feelings, ability to draw on one’s emotions to guide and understand one’s behavior, recognition of personal strengths and weaknesses Naturalistic - sensitivity and understanding of plants, animals, and other aspects of nature  Dr. Gardner says that our schools and culture focus most of their attention on linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence. We esteem the highly articulate or logical people of our culture. However, Dr. Gardner says that we should also place equal attention on individuals who show gifts in the other intelligences: the artists, architects, musicians, naturalists, designers, dancers, therapists, entrepreneurs, and others who enrich the world in which we live. Unfortunately, many children who have these gifts don’t receive much reinforcement for them in school. Many of these kids, in fact, end up being labeled “learning disabled.” The theory of multiple intelligences gives adults a whole new way to look at their lives, examining potentials that they left behind in their childhood (such as a love for art or drama) but now have the opportunity to develop through courses, hobbies, or other programs of self-development. T R I A RC H I C T H E O RY OF INTELLIGENCE  In the 1980s and 1990s, Robert Sternberg proposed a triarchic theory of intelligence that distinguishes among three aspects of intelligence: Componential intelligence: the ability assessed by intelligence tests Experiential intelligence: the ability to adapt to new situations and produce new ideas Contextual intelligence: the ability to function effectively in daily situations  IS INTELLIGENCE N AT U R E O R N U RT U R E ? MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE  MEASURING INTELLIGENCE Intelligence of a person can be measured through intelligence tests through the use of a battery of tests (collection of tests) is preferred over a single test. The History of Measurement of Intelligence Man was always interested in knowing their own ability level, or in other words the intelligence, as well as that of others. People looked for capable persons while searching for life-mates, companions, workers, architects, artists, and poets or authors. Even in case of chefs, tailors, carpenters, or barbers, those with the fine skill and the ability to generate unique ideas were preferred – Historically, the first effort at intelligence testing was based on an uncomplicated but completely wrong assumption: that the size and shape of a person’s head could be used as an objective measure of intelligence. The idea was put forward by Sir Francis Galton (1822–1911), an eminent English scientist whose ideas in other domains proved to be considerably better than his notions about intelligence – The first real intelligence tests were developed by the French psychologist Alfred Binet (1857–1911). His tests followed from a simple premise: If performance on certain tasks or test items improved with chronological, or physical, age, performance could be used to distinguish more intelligent people from less intelligent ones within a particular age group. On the basis of this principle, Binet devised the first formal intelligence test, which was designed to identify the “dullest” students in the Paris school system in order to provide them with remedial aid  The main idea was that intelligence can be measured in terms of performance of a child. If performance on certain tasks, that were the test items, improved with age then it could be taken as an indication of intelligence of a person. By developing tasks on which people's performance improved with age, a measure could be devised which could distinguish intelligent people from those not intelligent. Using the same concept Binet developed the first intelligence test in 1905. The test could identify more intelligent children within a particular age group. It could differentiate intelligent children from the less intelligent ones. The test was devised for locating the `dullest' students’ in the Paris school system so that remedial assistance could be provided to them before they were denied instruction.  Here are some sample items from Simon-Binet Test (1911) Three years Shows nose, eyes and mouth. Repeats two digits. Describes objects in a picture. Gives family name. Repeats a sentence of six syllables. Four years Gives own sex. Names key, knife, and penny. Repeats three digits. Compares the length of two lines. Five years Compares two weights. Copies a square. Repeats a sentence of ten syllables. Counts four pennies. Six years Distinguishes between morning and afternoon. Defines objects in terms of their use. Copies a shape. Counts 13 pennies. Compares faces from the aesthetic point of view. Seven years Identifies right hand and left ear. Describes a picture. Follows precise directions. Names four colors. Eight years Compares two remembered objects. Counts from 20 to 0. Indicates omissions in pictures. Gives day and date. Repeats five digits. Fifteen years Repeats seven digits. Gives three rhymes. Repeats a sentence of 26 syllables. Interprets a picture. Solves a problem from several facts. The original Binet- Simon scale was revised a number of times Stanford- Binet is one of the most widely used tests even today  The Concept of Mental Age Children taking the Binet-Simon test were assigned a score that corresponded to the age group they belonged to. This score indicated their "mental age". Mental age referred to the average age of children who secured the same score. Mental age can be understood as the typical intelligence level found for people at a given chronological age. Mental age of a person can be different from his or her chronological age i.e., it can be above or below that. It could reflect whether or not a child was performing at a level at which his age mates were. Mental age, which is your cognitive abilities relative to what others can do of different ages. In other words, what do you think an average five year old can do? Can they read? Can they do math? What about the average ten year old? Or how about someone who is 40 years old? Your mental age is what you are capable of doing, scaled to what the average people of different ages can do. In other words, if you're capable of doing what an average 25-year old can do, then your mental age is 25. If you can do what an average 10-year old can do, but not anything more advanced than that, then your mental age is only 10.  Chronological age is a measure of an individual’s age based on the calendar date on which he or she was born. Chronological age is calculated on most psychological tests. It is measured in days, months and years.  If we compare the mental age of a person to the person’s chronological age, the result is the intelligence quotient (IQ), a measure of intelligence that is adjusted for age. A simple way to calculate IQ is by using the following formula: IQ = mental age ÷ chronological age × 100. RELIABILITY AND VA L I D I T Y O F INTELLIGENCE TEST  RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. When researchers measure a construct that they assume to be consistent across time, then the scores they obtain should also be consistent across time Validity refers to the degree to which a test or other measure of some psychological construct actually measures that construct, it measures what it is suppose to measure. Hence, validity refers to the accuracy of the test.  VARIATIONS IN INTELLECTUAL ABILITY Mental retardation (or intellectual disability) – A condition characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills. Intellectually gifted – The 2%–4% segment of the population who have IQ scores greater than 130.  Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales (SB5)  The questions we use to measure intelligence change with age. A 3- year-old who could accurately multiply 183 by 39 would certainly be intelligent, but a 25-year-old who could not do so might be seen as unintelligent. Thus, understanding intelligence requires that we know the norms or standards in a given population of people at a given age. The standardization of a test involves giving it to a large number of people at different ages and computing the average score on the test at each age level.  FLYNN EFFECT James Flynn, a New Zealand researcher, discovered that the mean IQ score of 100 between the years 1918 and 1995 had actually risen by about 25 points. This is called the Flynn effect, referring to the observation that scores on intelligence tests worldwide have increased substantially over the past decades. Although the increase varies somewhat from country to country, the average increase is about 3 IQ points every 10 years. It is uncertain what causes this increase in intelligence on IQ tests. But some of the explanations for the Flynn effect include better nutrition, increased access to information, and more familiarity with multiple-choice tests. Whether people are actually getting smarter is debatable.  INTELLIGENCE, APTITUDE AND ACHIEVEMENT Intelligence is a general mental capability that involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend ideas and language, and learn. Intellectual ability involves comprehension; understanding, and learning from experience. Intelligence tests are aimed at assessing a person's underlying intellectual ability. An aptitude is the ability to learn or to develop proficiency in an area (if provided with appropriate education or training). It is like talent. Examples are various types of reasoning, artistic ability, motor coordination, musical talent. There are aptitude tests that measure mechanical and linguistic ability, as well as more specific skills, such as military flight and computer programming. Achievement tests measure the extent to which a person has "achieved" something, acquired certain information, or mastered certain skills - usually as a result of planned instruction or training. It is designed to efficiently measure the amount of knowledge and/or skill a person has acquired, usually as a result of classroom instruction.