Chapter 10 Intelligence PDF

Chapter 10 Intelligence Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Chapter Outline  How Can In...

Chapter 10 Intelligence Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Chapter Outline  How Can Intelligence Be Measured?  What Is Intelligence?  Where Does Intelligence Come From? Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Who Is Most Intelligent? PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Intelligence  Intelligence  Ability to use one’s mind to solve novel problems and learn from experience  For more than a century, psychologists have asked four questions about intelligence.  How can it be measured?  What exactly is intelligence? Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Where does it come from?  Why are some people more intelligent than others? PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Measuring Intelligence The intelligence quotient  Alfred Binet (1857–1911) and Theodore Simon (1872–1961) developed the first intelligence test to identify children who needed remedial education.  Measured aptitude apart from achievement Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Measuring Intelligence  William Stern (1871–1938) coined “mental age.”  Ratio IQ: Statistic obtained by dividing a person’s mental age by their physical age then multiplying by 100  10 year old performs same level as other 10 year olds: 10/10 x 100 = 100  10 year old performs at level of 8 year old: 8/10 x 100 = 80 Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Deviation IQ: Statistic obtained by dividing a person’s test score by the average test score of people in the same age group × 100 PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Roots of Most Modern Intelligence Tests  Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale  Terman updated Binet and Simon original test  Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Most widely used intelligence tests  Measures intelligence by asking people to answer questions and solve problems PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition WAIS-IV Test  Verbal Comprehension  Vocabulary, similarities, information  Perceptual Reasoning  Visual-spatial tests (blocks, puzzles)  Working Memory Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Digit span, arithmetic  Processing Speed  Symbol search, coding PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Intelligence Test Scores  Intelligence test scores correlate with a wide variety of successful life events and accomplishments.  Predict academic performance, occupational status, job performance, and income  Predict health and longevity Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Income and Intelligence Among Siblings Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition A World of Difference Equality in Smartland  Intelligent people have better health, better jobs, and better relationships, so they tend to be happier.  Nikolaev and colleagues found a positive correlation between a nation’s average IQ and average happiness.  In nations with the same average happiness, the smarter one tends to distribute happiness more Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved equally among its citizens. Why do you think this occurs? PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Intelligence and Happiness in Eighty-One Countries Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Each dot represents a nation. The positive correlation indicates that the smarter a nation is, the more “happiness equality” it has. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition What Is Intelligence? (part 1)  Charles Spearman (1863–1945)  Sought to discover if there was a hierarchy of abilities  Found correlations among many cognitive tasks; positive manifold Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Not perfect correlations (e.g., top child on one cognitive task was not always the top child in math) PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition  What Is Intelligence? (part 1)  Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence  General cognitive ability: g  Specific abilities: s  Louis Thurstone (1887–1955): correlations were stronger when tests had something in common (both verbal). Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Argued there was no single g  Intelligence was made up of primary abilities: perceptual, verbal, and numerical abilities. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition What Is Intelligence? (part 2)  Confirmatory factor analysis showed that both Spearman and Thurstone were correct.  A three-level hierarchy best describes correlations between scores on different mental ability tests. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Like Spearman’s general factor (g) and specific factors (s) and Thurstone’s group factors. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition A Three-Level Hierarchy Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Middle-Level Abilities  Middle-level abilities lie between specific and general mental abilities regarding intelligence.  Different approaches  Data-based approach  Connects intelligence test performance to clusters Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Theory-based approach  Broadly surveys human abilities and then determines which intelligence tests measure (or fail to measure) PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Patterns of Correlation Can Reveal Middle-Level Abilities (Data Approach) Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Data-Based Approach (part 1)  John Carroll (1916–2003) found patterns of correlation among eight independent middle- level abilities.  Memory and learning  Visual perception  Auditory perception  Retrieval ability Cognitive speediness Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved   Processing speed  Crystallized intelligence  Fluid intelligence PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Data-Based Approach (part 2)  Fluid intelligence  Ability to see abstract relationships and draw logical inferences  Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test  Crystallized intelligence Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Ability to retain and use the knowledge that was acquired through experience  Vocabulary and factual knowledge PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Theory-Based Approach (part 1)  Robert Sternberg (b. 1949) proposed three kinds of intelligence.  Analytic intelligence (problem-solving) – what is measured on most IQ tests  Creative intelligence: ability to generate novel solutions  Practical intelligence: ability to implement these solutions in everyday life Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Not all of the problems that intelligence enables us to solve are analytical, creative, or practical. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Theory-Based Approach (part 2)  Emotional intelligence: Ability to reason about emotions and to use emotions to enhance reasoning  Emotionally intelligent people  Can identify, describe, and manage their emotions to improve decisions  Can identify other people’s emotions from facial expressions and tones of voice Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Have better social skills and more friends  Show less neural activity when solving emotional problems than emotionally unintelligent people do PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Theory-Based Approach (part 3)  Intelligence across cultures  Data-based approach is not reflective of middle- level abilities valued in cultures where intelligence tests are not common.  Different cultures; different views  Different conceptualizations of intelligence  Differences in language Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Differences in kinds of problems considered important  Every culture values the ability to solve important problems. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Where Does Intelligence Come From?  Intelligence is the joint product of innate characteristics and unique experiences.  Influence of intelligence  Nature Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Nurture PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Nature: Genetic Influences on Intelligence  Genetic relatedness  Family members may have similar levels of intelligence because they share genes. After all, they share environments or both.  Research approaches  Examining test scores of people who share genes, environments, both, or neither  Siblings separated at birth, adopted children, siblings, Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved dizygotic and monozygotic twins.  People who share all their genes have similar intelligence test scores regardless of whether they share environments. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition  Intelligence Test Correlations Between People with Different Relationships Shared Shared Correlation Between Relationship Environment Genes (%) Intelligence Test Scores (r) Twins Identical twins (n = 4,672) yes 100.86 Identical twins (n = 93) no 100.78 Fraternal twins (n = 5,533) yes 50.60 Parents and Children Parent–biological child (n = 8,433) yes 50.42 Parent–biological child (n = 720) no 50.24 Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Nonbiological parent–adopted child (n = 1,491) yes 0.19 Siblings Biological siblings (2 parents in common) (n = 26,473) yes 50.47 Nonbiological siblings (no parents in common) (n = 714) yes 0.32 Biological siblings (2 parents in common) (n = 203) no 50.24 PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Measuring the Influence of Genes on IQ  Heritability coefficient (h²)  Statistic that describes the proportion of the difference between people’s IQ scores that differences in their genes can explain  Studies show this is roughly from 50% to 70%. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  This value can change depending on the particular group of people we measure. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition What the Heritability Coefficient Doesn’t Tell Us  Heritability coefficient h2 is not the same as the correlation coefficient r.  Intelligence of an individual is a joint product of their genes and experience—it cannot be “due to” one of these things or Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved the other. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Questions with and Without Answers Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition What the Heritability Coefficient Does Tell Us  Heritability coefficient  Tells how big influence genes have on the differences in a particular group of people’s IQ scores  Value of the heritability coefficient is different when different groups are measured. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Value of the heritability coefficient also varies depending on the age of the people being measured. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition What Do You Think?  Some research suggests that IQ is more heritable among higher-income children, perhaps because their environments are similar.  If there are fewer differences in their Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved environments, then differences in their IQs are more likely due to differences in their genes. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition  Age and Heritability of Intelligence  The heritability of intelligence generally increases with the age of the sample measured. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition What the Heritability Coefficient Does Tell Us  Shared environment: Those environmental factors that all relevant members of a household experience  Nonshared environment: Those environmental factors that all relevant members of a household do not experience  Wealth and age argue for nonshared environmental factors. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  The distinction between shared and nonshared environments explains why the correlation between the IQ scores of siblings is more significant when the siblings are similar in age. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Nurture: Environmental Influences on Intelligence  Genes are not destiny.  Relative intelligence is generally stable, but absolute intelligence can change considerably over time. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Intelligence Changes Over Time Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Flynn Effect Accidental discovery that the average intelligence test score rises about 0.3% every year, as discovered by James Flynn (b. 1934). Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Genes and Environment  Genes may establish the range in which a person’s intelligence may fall, but environment determines the point in that range at which the person’s intelligence will fall.  Although Jason’s genes give him a better chance to be smart than Josh’s genes, Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved differences in their diets could easily cause Josh to have a higher IQ than Jason. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Poverty Lowers Intelligence  One of the best predictors of intelligence is the family's material well-being.  Being raised in a high-SES family can raise IQ by 12 to 18 points.  Low SES may impair brain development (most influential in early childhood). Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  High-SES families are more likely to provide intellectual stimulation. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition School Raises Intelligence  The correlation between formal education and intelligence is large (r = 0.55 to 0.90).  Smart people tend to stay in school, and school makes people smarter.  Education may improve test-taking ability rather than general cognitive ability. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Educational effects on intelligence may be small and short-lived, but school produces long-lasting increases in other critical skills. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Can Education Hurt?  In Asian countries, most students spend time getting extra tutoring in math, and as this graph shows, the more time they spend, the better their Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved math performance. Is that because the tutoring helps? PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Gene–Environment Interactions  Genes and environments, though separate, have a direct and independent influence on the brain and intelligence.  Genes can cause people to be drawn towards or away from particular Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved environments. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition  Hot Science: Brains Wide Open  Infant brains are environmentally sensitive; openness to experience closes by age 18—or does it?  Brant and colleagues’ twin study data results  Brains of low-IQ people closed by early adolescence. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Brains of high-IQ people remain open to influence well into adolescence. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Who Is Most Intelligent?  Individual differences in intelligence  The average IQ is 100, and about 68% of people have IQs between 85 and 115.  Intellectually gifted: People who score well above large middle range  Intellectually disabled: People who score well below the middle range Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Although males and females have the same average IQ, the distribution of males’ IQ scores is more variable than the distribution of females’ IQ scores. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Normal Curve of Intelligence Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Individual Differences in Intelligence (part 1)  Intelligence seems to buffer people against mental illness.  People with very high IQs are less prone to mental illness than are people with low intelligence.  Very high IQ children are as well adjusted as their peers—mainly if they are provided appropriate Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved educational opportunities.  Gifted children often spend more time engaged in their domain of excellence. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Individual Differences in Intelligence (part 2)  Unlike intellectual gifts, intellectual disabilities tend to be general rather than specific.  People who have them typically show impaired performance on a wide range of cognitive tasks.  Two of the most common causes of intellectual disability  Down syndrome (or trisomy 21, caused by the Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved presence of a third copy of chromosome 21)  Fetal alcohol syndrome (caused by a mother’s excessive alcohol use during pregnancy). PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Group Differences in Intelligence (part 1)  Terman’s claims of intelligence were racist.  It is difficult to point to the cause of group differences.  Average between-group differences tend to Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved be less than within-group differences. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Group Differences in Intelligence (part 2)  Tests and test takers  Original intelligence tests were culturally biased towards (and against) particular groups.  Cultural bias in questions, testing situations Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Stereotype threat may create fear of confirming the negative beliefs that others may hold. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Group Differences in Intelligence (part 3)  Environments and genes  Environmental differences influence intelligence.  Differences in SES influence intelligence.  Very little genetic effects influence intelligence. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Scientists have not yet identified major “intelligence genes.” PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Improving Intelligence (part 1)  Research findings suggest four things that raise a child’s intelligence reliably.  Supplementing diets of pregnant women and neonates with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids = +4 points.  Enrolling low-SES infants in early educational interventions = +6 points. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Reading to children in an interactive manner = +6 points.  Sending children to preschool = +6 points. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Improving Intelligence (part 2)  Cognitive enhancers  Drugs that improve psychological processes that underlie performance  Ritalin, Adderall, Modafinil  Technological enhancements Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Brain structure alteration; gene manipulation or editing (CRISPR) PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition