Sociolinguistics Lecture Notes - Chapter One - Multilingualism

**Module: Sociolinguistics** **Specialty: LLA** **Level: Master 02** **Instructor: Dr. Amina RABEHI** **Chapter One: Multilingualism and Language Choice** *Textbook Reference*: Meyerhoff, Miriam. Introducing Sociolinguistics, 2nd Edition Date: 08,15/10/2024 **Lecture Overview** This lecture...

**Module: Sociolinguistics** **Specialty: LLA** **Level: Master 02** **Instructor: Dr. Amina RABEHI** **Chapter One: Multilingualism and Language Choice** *Textbook Reference*: Meyerhoff, Miriam. Introducing Sociolinguistics, 2nd Edition Date: 08,15/10/2024 **Lecture Overview** This lecture dives into the dynamic world of multilingualism and the sociolinguistic factors behind language choice. We will unpack the complexities of ethnolinguistic vitality, code-switching, and speech levels, using case studies from around the world to illustrate these concepts. Language choices are not arbitrary; they reveal deeper social, political, and cultural landscapes, as Miriam Meyerhoff explains in her book. **Key Topics** 1\. Introduction to Multilingualism and Language Choice 2\. Ethnolinguistic Vitality 3\. Model of Ethnolinguistic Vitality 4\. Institutional Factors Influencing Language Vitality 5\. Demographic Factors Influencing Vitality 6\. Diglossia in a Community 7\. Is Vitality the Same as Prestige? 8\. Code-Switching and Code-Mixing 9\. Deciding When to Use Which Code 10\. Attitudes Toward Switching Between Varieties 11\. Speech Levels as Different Codes 12\. Variations in the Use of Speech Levels 13\. Conclusion and Implications **1. Introduction to Multilingualism and Language Choice** **1.1 Defining Multilingualism** Multilingualism refers to the ability to speak, understand and use more than one language in everyday communication by an individual or a community. It is a natural phenomenon in most parts of the world, especially in post-colonial societies, border regions, and urban centers where cultural and linguistic diversity intersect. *Example from Meyerhoff:* In Papua New Guinea, many people speak multiple local languages in addition to English or Tok Pisin, often switching based on the social context. **1.2 Language Choice and Social Identity** Language choice signals one's social identity, power relations, and group affiliation. It is more than just about communication -it is about saying, "I belong here," or sometimes, "I want to distance myself from this group." *Case Study: Belgium* Meyerhoff examines language choice in Belgium, where French and Dutch are spoken. Choosing to speak French in Flanders can be seen as an assertion of power, whereas speaking Dutch signals solidarity with the local population. **2. Ethnolinguistic Vitality** **2.1 Definition** Ethnolinguistic vitality refers to the strength and survivability of a language within its social context. Languages with high vitality tend to thrive, while those with low vitality are at risk of decline or extinction. **Key Factors Influencing Vitality** 1\. Demography (number of speakers). 2\. Status and Prestige in society. 3\. Institutional Support, including education and government policies. *Examples:* For instance, in Quebec French speaking community, French has a strong ethnolinguistic vitality due to political, demographic and cultural support. Another example is the Māori language revival in New Zealand. Once endangered, efforts by the Māori community, including establishing Māori language schools (Kura Kaupapa Māori) have revitalized its use. *Case Study: Welsh Language Revival* Meyerhoff discusses the Welsh language in Wales, a prime example of a successful language revival. Welsh was once endangered, but governmental policies, bilingual education, and Welsh-language media have revitalized its use. S4C, the Welsh-language TV channel, plays a key role in maintaining cultural and linguistic pride. Reflection Think of a language you are familiar with. What factors contribute to its vitality? Does it have strong institutional support, or is it at risk of decline? **3. Model of Ethnolinguistic Vitality** **3.1 Components of the Model** Meyerhoff's model breaks down ethnolinguistic vitality into measurable factors (The model, developed by Giles, Bourhis, and Taylor): *1. Status Factors:* How prestigious is the language in various domains (education, work, religion)? *2. Demographic Factors:* What is the number and concentration of speakers? *3. Institutional Support:* To what extent is the language supported by laws, schools, media, and government? **Figure 1:** Factors contributing to ethnolinguistic vitality (Giles et al. 1977) **3.2 Application: Spanish vs. English in the U.S.** *Spanish:* Spoken by millions, with growing demographics. Gaining institutional support, especially in states like California and Texas. But struggles with prestige in certain professional domains. *English:* The lingua franca of business, education, and politics. High institutional support and international influence. **3.3 Example: Catalan vs. Spanish** In Catalonia, Catalan has a high level of institutional support, with mandatory Catalan-medium education. However, Spanish holds wider demographic and national influence. Meyerhoff highlights the tension between these languages in terms of power, identity, and political movements. Activity Analyze a multilingual region of your choice. How does Meyerhoff's model help us understand the relationships between languages in that context? **4. Institutional Factors Influencing Language Vitality** **4.1 The Role of Institutions** Institutions play a huge role in maintaining or weakening a language's vitality. Education systems, media outlets, and government policies are powerful tools that can either reinforce or erode a language's use. **4.2 Example from Meyerhoff: French in Canada** In Quebec, French is protected and promoted by policies like the Charter of the French Language (Bill 101). This ensures that French remains the dominant language in education, workplaces, and public life, even as English dominates globally. **4.3 Language Policy Failures** Meyerhoff also points out cases where institutional support is lacking, leading to language shift or decline, like the loss of indigenous languages in many countries due to monolingual education systems. *Indigenous Languages in the United States* U.S. government assimilated Native Americans through boarding schools, prohibiting the use of native languages. This led to significant language loss and cultural erosion among communities, like the Lakota, who saw a drastic decline in fluent speakers. *Mandarin Promotion in China* Mandarin promoted as the national standard, often at the expense of regional dialects. *This* resulted in declining use of dialects like Cantonese, with concerns over cultural homogenization. *Discussion* How can institutional policies both help and hinder language preservation efforts? Can you think of an example where a language policy had unintended consequences? **5. Demographic Factors Influencing Vitality** **5.1 Population Size** Languages spoken by large, young, and geographically concentrated populations tend to have higher vitality. Conversely, languages with shrinking or aging populations, or that are dispersed, tend to decline. **5.2 Migration and Urbanization** Urbanization often leads to language shift because migrants adopt the dominant urban language for economic reasons. Example: In China, many rural dialects are being lost as people move to cities and adopt Mandarin for work and education. **5.3 Intergeneration Transmission** If parents do not pass the language to their children, the language dies. In US, immigrant languages like Spanish maintain their vitality through strong intergenerational transmission within family members. *Example from Meyerhoff: Irish Gaelic* Irish Gaelic has institutional support and high cultural value, but demographic trends show a decline in active speakers. Gaelic is now mostly spoken in rural Gaeltacht areas, while English dominates in cities and schools. **6. Diglossia in a Community** **6.1 Defining Diglossia** Diglossia is a situation where two varieties of the same language (or two distinct languages) serve different functions in a society. Charles Ferguson calls one a High (H) variety, used in formal settings and for writing, while the other (Vernacular Variety) is the Low (L) variety, used in everyday conversation. The High variety has to be formally taught and has a standardized grammar that is the subject of conscious study. *Example: Arabic Diglossia* Meyerhoff explores Arabic-speaking countries where Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is the H variety, used in media, religion, and formal education, while regional dialects (e.g., Algerian Arabic) function as the L variety for informal communication. This creates a linguistic split, with MSA rarely used in daily life. *Example: Switzerland* In Switzerland, Swiss German is the L variety spoken in everyday contexts, while Standard German serves as the H variety for education, news, and formal settings. Swiss Germans are often fluent in both varieties, switching based on context. **7. Is Vitality the Same as Prestige?** **7.1 Understanding Prestige** Prestige refers to the social value a language holds, but this does not always align with vitality. Some prestigious languages may have a limited number of speakers, while less prestigious languages may thrive demographically. *Example: English vs. Hindi in India* English has immense prestige in India, often seen as the language of business, higher education, and government. However, in terms of sheer numbers, Hindi has far greater vitality, spoken by hundreds of millions across the country. **7.2 Language Prestige without Vitality** *Example from Meyerhoff: Latin* Latin has high historical prestige but almost no vitality, as it is no longer spoken natively. However, it still holds cultural and academic significance in law, religion, and science. **8. Code-Switching and Code-Mixing** **8.1 What is Code-Switching?** Code-switching involves alternating between two or more languages or dialects during conversation. It often occurs in bilingual or multilingual communities where speakers have access to multiple linguistic repertoires. *Case Study from Meyerhoff: Spanish-English in the U.S.* In bilingual communities, especially among younger generations, speakers frequently switch between English and Spanish mid-conversation. This is not random but serves functions like emphasizing points or signaling identity. **8.2 What is Code-Mixing?** Code-mixing refers to the blending of elements from two or more languages within a single utterance or sentence, often at the word or phrase level. It is commonly seen in communities where speakers are highly proficient in multiple languages. *Example from Meyerhoff: Hindi-English Code-Mixing* In India, speakers often mix Hindi with English, especially in urban areas where English is associated with education and modernity. You might hear sentences like, \"Mujhe coffee chahiye, but without sugar.\" The shift to English terms reflects social mobility and linguistic creativity. **8.3 Functional Reasons for Code-Switching/Code-Mixing** Meyerhoff highlights that code-switching is not random. It serves specific functions, such as: *Topic Shifts*: Moving from one subject to another might prompt a language change, particularly if the new topic is culturally tied to a particular language. *Identity Signaling*: Speakers might switch languages to align with their cultural background or social group, asserting an ethnic identity. *Discourse Markers:* Sometimes switching languages can add emotional emphasis or create rapport, such as using one language to convey politeness and another to display intimacy or familiarity. **9. Deciding When to Use Which Code** The decision of which language to use depends on several factors: *1. Setting*: Formal vs. informal contexts often dictate the choice between a high-prestige or local variety. *2. Participants*: Who you are speaking to matters; friends, family, authority figures, or strangers. *3. Topic*: Some subjects might be better discussed in a specific language that is linked to education, culture, or religion. *4. Purpose:* Is the conversation to assert identity, to get information, or to show respect? *Example from Meyerhoff: Singapore* In Singapore, speakers may choose between Mandarin, English, Malay, and various Chinese dialects depending on their audience. While Mandarin is preferred in formal, official settings, Singlish (a local variety of English) is used informally to signal shared identity and community membership. **Power Dynamics** Language choice often reflects power relations. In multilingual countries like South Africa, switching to English in a professional context might reflect the dominance of English in business, even though speakers might prefer Afrikaans or a local language at home. *Activity* Consider your own language use. How do you decide when to switch between languages or varieties in different situations? What social cues guide your choices? **10. Attitudes Toward Switching Between Varieties** **10.1 Social Stigma and Prestige** Attitudes towards code-switching and code-mixing vary greatly between cultures. Some see it as a mark of linguistic dexterity and sophistication, while others perceive it as "lazy" or "improper" speech. *Example from Meyerhoff: Attitudes in Hong Kong* In Hong Kong, switching between Cantonese and English is common, particularly in business and education. However, there can be negative attitudes toward those who mix languages inappropriately, such as using English in highly Cantonese-dominant informal settings, which may be perceived as showing off or distancing oneself from local identity. **10.2 Prestige and Code-Switching** Certain languages or varieties carry prestige, and switching to them can raise one's social standing. For example, in Rwanda (situated in Central Africa), speakers of Kinyarwanda may switch to French in formal settings to convey professionalism or education. **11. Speech Levels as Different Codes** **11.1 Defining Speech Levels** In some languages, different speech levels are used to show respect, formality, or social hierarchy. These levels (High, Mid, and Low) can function much like different languages or dialects, with specific rules about when and with whom to use them. *Example from Meyerhoff: Javanese Speech Levels* Meyerhoff discusses Javanese in Indonesia, where speakers must navigate multiple speech levels, such as Ngoko (Low: informal, used among peers or subordinates) Madya (Mid: more polite and formal than Ngoko, used when speaking to someone with slightly higher status) and Krama (formal, used for superiors). The choice of level reflects respect, age, and social status. **11.2 Hierarchy and Respect** Languages with speech levels, like Korean or Japanese, require speakers to select appropriate speech forms based on the social relationship between the speaker and listener. Using the wrong level can result in offense or misunderstanding. *Discussion* Do you know languages that incorporate different levels of politeness or respect? How does this affect communication between generations, social classes, or in the workplace? **12. Variations in the Use of Speech Levels** **12.1 Contextual Variations** Speakers might adjust their use of speech levels based on factors such as: *1. Context*: Is the situation formal or informal? *2. Audience*: Who is the speaker addressing (friend, superior, elder)? *3. Topic*: Is the conversation about something serious or casual? **12.2 Language Evolution** Meyerhoff notes that, in some communities, speech levels are becoming less rigid. Younger generations may adopt more informal registers even in situations traditionally requiring formality. This can signal a shift in societal values, such as a move towards greater equality or informality. *Example from Meyerhoff: Korean Youth* In Korea, younger speakers are increasingly using less formal speech levels in contexts that previously demanded deference. This reflects evolving cultural norms and more casual relationships between individuals across different age groups. **13. Conclusion and Implications** Multilingualism and language choice are complex and fascinating topics that intersect with identity, power, and society. Meyerhoff's work provides us with a rich framework to understand how languages function in a multilingual world, whether through code-switching, ethnolinguistic vitality, or speech levels. ***Key Takeaways*** Ethnolinguistic vitality is a crucial concept in understanding why some languages thrive while others decline. Institutional support, demographics, and prestige all influence a language\'s status in society. Code-switching and code-mixing are important social tools used to navigate identity, formality, and group membership. The way people use speech levels reflects underlying social hierarchies and cultural norms, but these can evolve over time. ***Final Thought*** Language is never static. The choices speakers make, whether consciously or unconsciously, tell us not just about how they communicate, but who they are and how they view their place in the world. Discussion Questions: 1\. How does Meyerhoff's model of ethnolinguistic vitality apply to the languages spoken in your community? 2\. In your opinion, is code-switching a sign of language decay or creativity? Why? 3\. Do you see any parallels between the use of speech levels in Javanese or Korean and your own language? How do power and respect play out linguistically in your society?