Sociolinguistics (3) PDF

Sociolinguistics (3) Dr Thorsten Brato Department of English and American Studies VL Introduction to English Linguistic: English in Use  Recap England can be divided into eight accent major accent areas The realisation of the BATH, STRUT, FACE and GOAT lexical sets ar...

Sociolinguistics (3) Dr Thorsten Brato Department of English and American Studies VL Introduction to English Linguistic: English in Use  Recap England can be divided into eight accent major accent areas The realisation of the BATH, STRUT, FACE and GOAT lexical sets are most helpful trying to place a speaker geographically In the US, there are nine major accent areas For historical reasons, most variation is found in the (North-)East Major accent differences between England and the US Realisation of the LOT and BATH vowels Rhoticity T-flapping and T-deletion The New York Dialect Survey (Labov 1966) was a ground-breaking study in sociolinguistics Real and apparent-time are two constructs used by sociolinguists to study variation 2  Today's lecture 1 Multilingualism 4 Modelling World Englishes 2 English around the world 5 Examples of World Englishes Historical evolution of World 3 6 Pidgins and creoles Englishes 3  1 Multilingualism Introduction Multilingualism is a notoriously difficult concept  [A] person able to speak more than one language, or the situation in which speakers can and do speak more than one language. (Wardaugh & Fuller 2015: 412) What makes a person multilingual? Where do you draw the line between language and dialect? What makes a country bi- or multilingual? 4  1 Multilingualism Myths Myths and misconceptions about multilingualism in Western societies (cf. Paradowski & Bator 2018) Bi- or multilinguals are exceptions to the 'default' monolingual 'norm’ One needs to have an equal, 'native-like' command of both/all of one's languages Childhood bilingualism may be detrimental to both linguistic and cognitive development  poorer results in school It is better if children only acquire the majority language Children would be confused with having the ability to speak two languages Bilinguals tend to have smaller vocabularies 5  1 Multilingualism Diglossia  Classically defined as a situation where two closely related languages (or dialects – TB) are used in a speech community. One for High (H) functions (e.g. church, newspapers) and one for Low (L) functions (e.g. in the home or market). The situation is supposed to be relatively stable and the languages/varieties remain distinct. Now often extended to refer to any two languages (even typologically unrelated ones) that have this kind of social and functional distribution. (Meyerhoff 2019: 115) Diglossia is a frequent phenomenon Switzerland: Schwyzerdütsch – High German Spain: Catalan – Castillian Singapore: Singlish – Singapore English Jamaica: Patwa – Jamaican English Arabic countries: Local dialects – Modern Standard Arabic … 6  1 Multilingualism Code switching People who speak two or more languages or varieties are usually well aware in which situation to use which language in more formal situations use the standard (H) variety or official language in less formal situations use the dialect or community (L) language  In its most specific sense, [code switching is; TB] the alternation between varieties, or codes, across sentences or clause boundaries. Often used as a cover term including code mixing as well. (Meyerhoff 2019: 129) Code switching may be influenced by Domain – Where are you (social or physical setting)? Situation – Who do you speak to? 7  1 Multilingualism Code mixing  [Code mixing; TB] [g]enerally refers to alternations between varieties, or codes, within a clause or phrase. Often elicits more strongly negative evaluations than alternations or code switching across clauses. (Meyerhoff 2019: 133) Code switching is a bit like either-or Code mixing has more interpersonal or affective functions than code switching, e.g. Signalling proximity/distance In-group/out-group Referring to concepts (e.g. Erasmus students still getting a ‘Schein’) 8  1 Multilingualism Self-study activity  Activity 1 (self-study) If you are a bi- or multilingual speaker, think about your own way of using the different languages. If you are monolingual, think about the use of your local dialect as opposed to the H variety. Is there a kind of decision tree like this? 10  2 English around the world Introduction English is a global language Billions of people use English on a daily basis in very different contexts and to different degrees English as the only language English as one of two or more languages English could be an official language in your country You use English with someone because you do not have a common language 12 2 English around the world Countries in which English has special status Wikipedia (2022) 13  3 Historical evolution of World Englishes Northern Hemisphere 1607: Jamestown First successful settlement of the English outside the British Isles End of the 17th century Eastern ‘USA’ Newfoundland Large parts of the Caribbean Parts of Central America 1776 Declaration of Independence 1867 Canada is given self-government 14  3 Historical evolution of World Englishes Africa 17th century Algeria British trading forts in West Africa Western Sahara Libya Egypt West (Morocco) 19th century Africa Mauritania First settlements in Southern Africa East Senegal Niger Mali Burkina Sudan Djibouti The Gambia Chad Faso Foundation of Liberia Africa Guinea-BissauGuinea Côte Nigeria Ethiopia Sierra Leone d'Ivoire Central African Ghana South Sudan “Involvement” in East Africa Cameroon Republic B=Burundi São Tomé EG EG=Equatorial Guinea Scramble for Africa Kenya and Príncipe Gabon L=Lesotho DR Congo R R=Rwanda B Official colonies and protectorates Tanzania E=Eswatini 20th century Comoros Angola Zambia Decolonisation Southern Zimbabwe Africa Namibia Botswana E L South Africa 15  3 Historical evolution of World Englishes Asia 17th century East India Company 18th century British gain power over large parts of the Indian subcontinent 19th century Southeast Hong Kong and Malaysia come Asia under British power American authority over the South Philippines Asia 20th century Decolonisation ‘Handover’ of Hong Kong to China 16  3 Historical evolution of World Englishes Australia and Oceania 18th century Foundation of the British Australian penal colony of New South Wales Pitcairn (1,300 miles south-east of Tahiti) 19th century Treaty of Waitangi – British settlement of New Zealand commenced 20th century Australia (1901) and New Zealand (1907) become independent Decolonisation 17 3 Historical evolution of World Englishes The British Empire 18  4 Modelling World Englishes The point of departure Time of decolonisation (1940s-1970s) English had developed for about 1,500 years Spread beyond the British Isles for approximately 350 years English was viewed as a monolithic entity despite the ongoing emergence of ever new varieties British and American Englishes Brown & Scragg (1951): Common errors in Gold Coast English: their cause and correction 19  4 Modelling World Englishes The Three Circles Model (Kachru 1985) Expanding UK, Ireland, US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand ‘Norm-providing’ Outer e.g. India, Nigeria, Jamaica, Inner Bangladesh, Zambia ‘Norm-developing’ Circle Circle e.g. Iran, China, Japan, Sweden, Brazil ‘Norm-dependent Circle 20  4 Modelling World Englishes The Dynamic Model The Dynamic Model of the Evolution of New Englishes (Schneider 2003, 2007) is the most influential model of World Englishes Emerging varieties of English in postcolonial contexts basically have the same evolution This is caused by the social dynamics between the two parties in a colonisation process IDG (indigenous) strand STL (settler) strand The strands start out as being completely separate/different before becoming more alike This has important linguistic consequences Gradual linguistic accommodation Set of shared features and norms Single speech community 21  4 Modelling World Englishes The Dynamic Model: Parameters Identity constructions 2 Of all parties involved IDG strand STL strand Sociolinguistics 1 3 Language contact Language use Language attitudes Extralinguistic factors 4 Historical events Political situation Structural effects Linguistic variants Emerging varieties 22  4 Modelling World Englishes The Dynamic Model: Phases and countries Foundation Nativization Differentiation (e.g. Kenya) (e.g. Australia) Endonormative Exonormative Stabilization Stabilization (e.g. South (e.g. Fiji) Africa) 23  5 Examples of World Englishes Accent variation India and of course the politics – they keep on going on with all stupid things I think – I don’t know why – but – that is the reason I think because the rest I don’t understand because – India and Pakistan used to be – they were in the beginning like – let’s say – before the partition (Collins & Mees 2013: 194) Cameroon and when we asked the child could not tell all the truth - he told us that he fell - into him and he fell - of which he had an accident - a terrible accident - he hidded it from us - that it cannot just be that they bonked - on him and he fell and he's moving like this - I said but there should be something more to this I told him that I will go to the school to verify (own recording) 24  5 Examples of World Englishes Lexical variation: Ghana  NANA Kweku Kwaning III, Benkumhene of Akim Bosome at the week-end swore the oath of allegiance to Nana Oware Agyekum III, Omanhene of Akim Bosome Traditional Area at a ceremony held at the traditional council conference hall Akim Swedru. Nana Kwaming, who is also Akim Afoase-Kesehene, succeeded his younger brother Nana Kofi Karikari, who was customarily destooled by his king-makers nine months ago. (HiCE-PrReg039) (Brato 2019: 259) 25  6 Pidgins and creoles Languages in contact In most parts of the world, it is completely common that languages co-exist side-by-side  language contact Bi- or multilingual speakers Languages in contact influence each other Borrowings are among the most common outcome Language transfer Words, sounds, even grammatical structures are taken over from one language to another Language contact has played a major role in the history of English and we covered several outcomes already 26  6 Pidgins and creoles Background Pidgins and creoles are languages that emerge out English-based pidgins and of the contact between speakers of at least two creoles are concentrated in languages West Africa Usually in marked social conditions, e.g. the Caribbean Trade the US and Central America Work the Pacific Plantation On ships The goal is basic communication – not acquiring a native- like competence on either side They show features of both languages Are usually strongly simplified phonetically and grammatically 27  5 Pidgins and creoles Definitions Pidgin Creole  Generally, a language variety that is  A language variety arising out of a not very linguistically complex or situation of language contact elaborated and is used in fairly (usually involving more than two restricted social domains and for languages). A creole can be limited social or interpersonal distinguished from a pidgin : (i) on functions. Like a creole , arises from the grounds that it is the first language contact; often seen as a language of some community or precursor or early stage to a creole. group of speakers, or (ii) on the It is often said that pidgin can be grounds that it is used for the entire distinguished from a creole in having range of social functions that a no native speakers. language can be used for. (Meyerhoff 2019: 279) (Meyerhoff 2019: 279) 28  5 Pidgins and creoles Superstrate and substrate Lexifier (superstrate) language Substrate language(s) From super (above) and stratum (layer) From sub (below) and stratum The language that provided most of the The language(s) that provide the underlying vocabulary structure of the pidgin or creole Often the language of the more powerful Grammar group Semantics 29  5 Pidgins and creoles West Africa West Africa has the longest history of contact between English and local languages and several pidgins and creoles Nigerian Pidgin 75m speakers (L1 and L2) – most widely spoken language (despite its name more of a creole!) Ghanaian Pidgin 5m speakers, mainly urban, Uneducated and Student Pidgin Cameroon Pidgin Speaker numbers difficult to assess, L1, L2 speakers and many use(r)s in specific situations Krio (Sierra Leone, Gambia) L1 of about 4m 30  5 Pidgins and creoles Nigerian Pidgin Check your time dere you go see na five minutes e take dodge two o’clock, Check your time, you’ll see it’s five minutes past two, e don reach di time for our Pidgin news for today time for our Pidgin news for today, wey be number seventeen day for di month of May wey be number five month for di year two thousand. the seventeenth of May two thousand. But before I go chook leg for di news proper, But before I enter into the news proper, I go tell una di ones wey carry kanda for inside. [...] I’ll give you the headlines. [...] 31 5 Pidgins and creoles BBC Pidgin https://www.bbc.com/pidgin 32  5 Pidgins and creoles Nigerian Pidgin One former oga on top ofofo and talk-talk matter o, Chief Uche Chukwumerije, say The former Minister of Information Chief Uche Chukwumerije said dem no go dance dat day o and dem no go do any oder kind of celebration (da#) there will be no dancing nor any other kind of celebration, but make everybody wey be Igbo man (ta#) tabi Igbo woman but that every Igbo man and Igbo woman wherever dem dey o to keep quiet tabi silent for three minutes by twelve o’clock will be called upon to observe three minutes of silence at twelve noon dat day to show say dem dey mourn abi dey squeeze face on top dem broders and sisters dem wey kpai during di Civil War. on that day in commemoration of the Igbos who died in the Civil War. 33   Keywords code mixing language contact code switching lexifier language creoles multilingualism decolonisation pidgins dialect or community (L) language standard (H) variety diglossia substrate language Dynamic Model Three Circles Model 36   References Brato, Thorsten. 2019. Lexical expansion in Ghanaian English from a diachronic perspective: A structural and semantic analysis. In Alexandra Esimaje, Ulrike Gut & Bassey E. Antia (eds.), Corpus Linguistics and African Englishes, 259–291. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Collins, Beverley & Inger M. Mees. 2013. Practical phonetics and phonology: A resource book for students, 3rd edn. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. Kachru, Braj B. 1985. Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: the English language in the outer circle. In Randolph Quirk & H. G. Widdowson (eds.), English in the world: Teaching and learning the language and literatures, 11–30. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Meyerhoff, Miriam. 2019. Introducing sociolinguistics, 3rd edn. London: Routledge. Paradowski, Michał B. & Aleksandra Bator. 2018. Perceived effectiveness of language acquisition in the process of multilingual upbringing by parents of different nationalities. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 21(6). 647–665. Schneider, Edgar W. 2003. The dynamics of New Englishes: From identity construction to dialect birth. Language 79(2). 233–281. Schneider, Edgar W. 2007. Postcolonial English: Varieties around the world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wardhaugh, Ronald & Janet M. Fuller. 2015. An introduction to sociolinguistics, 7th edn. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. Wikipedia. 2022. English-speaking world. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=English-speaking_world&oldid=1088934981. 37